Volume I

1. Introduction to the Noahide Laws

Misconceptions & Tragic Histories
Judaism is greatly misunderstood. Admittedly, Judaism appears strange when compared to other faiths. Whereas Christianity, Islam, and other religions seek adherents, and openly preach and proclaim the trueness of their faiths, Judaism appears to do the opposite. It seems turned in on itself and quietly unconcerned with the spiritual well being of non-Jews. Judaism also seems, to the outsider, to be preoccupied with the minutiae of obscure law. This has given rise to the myth that Judaism is a religion of “justice,” devoted to the worship of a “vengeful God.”

These misconceptions are, for the most part, the result of an 1800 year campaign of marketing and persecution by the Church who sought to replace the original Torah with their own ideology.

The Christian world invested tremendous effort in quashing Torah teachings and Jewish thought. They subjected Jews to persecution, exile, torture, and even death. Jews were forced into ghettos and frequently prohibited from teaching or printing Torah thought and teachings. As the oppressors outlawed Jewish and non-Jewish interaction, they simultaneously accused the Jews of being separatist and aloof. As the persecutors locked the Ghetto gates, they accused the Jews of being secretive and insular.

Persecution formed the basis for a propaganda that only fueled further harassment and discrimination. This condition was the norm for most of the Jewish world until only 70 years ago.

Since after the Holocaust, Jews have enjoyed religious freedom unlike anything experienced for the past 2000 years. With the decline of official oppression and discrimination, it is only now that Judaism can be discussed, studied, and taught freely.

Jews & Non-Jews
Judaism is not unconcerned with non-Jews, nor is it aloof to the spiritual needs of the world at large. For the past 2000 years, however, these matters could not be discussed openly in any meaningful way. It is only recently that the Jewish community has been able to freely discuss the Torah’s vision of the world. It is not a vision for Jews alone, but a vision for all mankind.

At Sinai the Torah was revealed and given to the Jewish people. It sealed the covenant between the Jewish people and the Creator of the universe. However, the Sinaitic covenant was neither the first nor the only agreement stuck between God and man. As testified to within the Torah itself, God established covenants with Adam and Noah.

Today, the Torah provides for two ideal relationships with God. One is that of the Jew, known as Judaism, governed by the covenant of Sinai. The other is that of the gentile, originally¹ governed by the covenants of Noah and Adam, known as the Noahide covenant.

Law & Love
The Torah, Judaism, and by extension, Noahism, are concerned with action. Mere belief in God or principles is not enough. The Torah requires us to actualize; to perform God’s will in this world. How, though, do we know God’s will? The answer is: mitzvos.

Both of the covenants include mitzvos – divine commandments – expressing God’s expectations of man. The Sinatic, Jewish covenant includes 613 mitzvos, divine laws. The Noahide covenant contains 7 categories of mitzvos (commandments) which include about 70 mitzvos in total.

But, why laws? Are not ethics enough? The Torah, as we shall see, contains both ethics and laws. Yet, there is a big difference between laws and ethics. Ethics are guiding moral principles having broad application. They are values commonly held, but whose interpretation easily becomes subjective. Laws, however, are specifically defined guidelines that mold and create societies; laws have the effect of putting everyone on the same page. They create commonality and community.

Ethics need laws to impose structure, commonality, and to preserve their meaning. However, law without ethics is meaningless.

But isn’t Judaism, or for that matter Noahism, a religion of love? If the covenants are motivated by love, then why does God want us to follow laws? The question itself is fundamentally flawed. Creation was, by default, the ultimate act of love and kindness. As we will learn in later lessons, God created the universe in order to bestow his goodness. Therefore, all of His actions are ultimately for the sake of our good, and all are acts of love. This includes His covenants, both the Sinaitic and the Noahide.
The idea that love and law are opposites is a fiction. It is part of the historical campaign of marketing and persecution discussed above. The church long portrayed the Torah as a covenant of law while claiming that their religion as one of love. The Torah views love and law as two sides of the same coin. Without any restraint, boundaries, or guidance, love is a destructive force, smothering force. Similarly, strict untempered justice is terrifying and unbearable. Law tempered by love, and love tempered by law, is God’s ideal formulation.

The mitzvos – the divine commandments – give structure and expression to the underlying beliefs, ethics, and values of God’s Torah. By fulfilling the mitzvos, we connect and become part of our Creator’s will. In this sense, the mitzvos are far more than just laws – they are a direct means of connecting to God.

Therefore, the mitzvos must be studied, pursued, loved, and performed with tremendous joy and thankfulness for the opportunities that they present.

From a metaphysical standpoint, the fulfillment of mitzvos contributes to the rectification of God’s creation. By fulfilling the mitzvos, we draw the light of God into the world and bring it closer to perfection.

Summary of This Lesson
1.At Sinai, God gave the Torah to the Jewish people, entrusting them with 613 divine commandments. At the same time God reaffirmed through Moses that the 7 Laws of the Children of Noah still applied to all of mankind.

2.The Torah is therefore a divine revelation not only for the Jewish world,but also for the non-Jewish world with regard to the 7 Laws of the Children of Noah.

3.Although the creation of the world and the giving of the Torah were acts of love, this does not preclude the role of law.

4.The mitzvos – divine commandments – give shape and direction to our expressions of love and worship of God, while they also inform us as to God’s will.

5.Although the 7 Laws of the Children of Noah are a fundamental part of Torah thought, they have not been discussed or taught much in the past1800 years. This is largely the effect of persecution and ghettoization,which limited interactions with non-Jews and the restrictions placed on the study and teaching of Torah.

1. As we shall see in future lessons, the original Adamic/Noahic covenant was eventually subsumed under the authority of the Sinaitic covenant.

1.1 What is Torah?

When the word Torah is used it is meant in several ways. These different meanings often create some amount of confusion. The confusion disappears the better one understands what is meant by Torah and when and how these different meanings ought to be applied. When we speak of Torah we might mean it one of several ways. The first way refers specifically to the first five books of Moshe Rabbenu (Moses our Teacher)—Bereishit through Devarim (Genesis through Deuteronomy).

Another way is to speak of the oral Torah. At Mt. Sinai God gave the children of Israel two Torahs, a written Torah and an oral Torah. Although the written Torah tells the Jewish people what they should do; it is often unclear how they should do it. Part of the difficulty of how to do something is by not understanding meaning in words. When the Torah says, “…the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt do no labor.”¹ The question is immediately asked what does the word labor mean, what is it, how do we define it so as not to break this commandment? “The basic task of the oral law, therefore, was to transmit the meaning of words.”² Only with the aid of the Talmud, a document that is able to recall through the shifting traditions of time, are the Jewish people able to understand labor in its original meaning, the meaning that existed at Mt. Sinai. Therefore, the Jew is able to know with certainty what activities are forbidden. Those that do not possess this knowledge are forced to make up their own oral law to determine what is considered labor, such as those in the Seventh Day Adventist and Kairite movements, and then keep this law according to their current cultural understanding of labor, and not according to the real meaning of the word.

Although many would claim that the oral Torah is an invention by the Rabbis. Anyone that actually tries to keep the Torah is forced, in some way, to create their own oral law. Even groups like the Karites, Jews who claim only the written Torah is from God, are forced to invent their own oral tradition. It is clear, then, that the Jewish people’s claim of an oral Torah is not unfounded or unreasonable. This oral Torah is just as important to non-Jews as it is to the Jewish people since it is the oral Torah that tells us, specifically, about the Noachide Laws and all the needed details of them.

We could also say we are studying Torah if we are studying any of the other parts of the Tanach, Torah, prophets, and writings; these three sections comprise what many people call the “Old Testament,” which is a theologically charged word that makes the Tanach seem ’old hat’. This is why those aligned with Judaism typically refer to in the non-insulting more accurate way as the Hebrew Scriptures. The Hebrew Scriptures is composed of the Torah (teaching), Nevaim (prophets), and the Ketuvim (writings). Together these words are referred to as the TaNa”Kh, we arrive at TaNa”Kh by putting together from the first letters of each of the words and hence we have TaNa”Kh or Tanak or Tanach. There are several different ways to write it. The Nevaim (prophets) and the Chituviim (writings) can also be referred together to separate it from the Torah. The prophets and writings without the Torah is called the Na”kh. When one studies Tanach they are studying Torah. This is because the Tanach either explains or gives us examples of the Torah in action. Therefore, anything written in the Nach (prophets and writings) cannot contradict or present something new to the Torah.The Tanach aids the student of the Noachide laws. Each of the Noachide laws are found somewhere within, which helps us know how to apply them better. It also demonstrates the consequences of disobedience to these laws, as well as the reward for obeying.³ Even better, often Nach lights the fire under people to inspire them to action.

The final way that Torah is meant is to refer to anything that helps expand our understanding of God’s Torah. Whether we study astronomy or physics, or even philosophy if this study is meant to aid in our understanding and appreciation of Torah it too is called studying Torah.

As we see Torah is meant in four ways. It is meant as written Torah, Oral Torah, Nach, and finally as secular matters studied for the sake of understanding Torah. This clarity on the use of the word Torah will aid the Torah student in future studies. When reading the word Torah it is important to determine which of these definitions is meant.

1. Exodus 20:10

2. Steinsaltz, 11

3. The Book of Jonah shows us how repentance can overturn an evil decree. The city, Nineveh, was a non-Jewish city. Nebuchadnezzar, in the book of Daniel, was turned into a wild animal as punishment for his actions; however, he was able to hold off this decree for a time by giving to charity.

1.2 What is Halachah? (Law)

1. The Law to establish courts of justice is actually both positive and negative. “Establish courts of justice” is the positive aspect and “do not pervert justice” is the negative aspect.

1.3 Idolatry

The first Noachide law is the prohibition against idolatry. If we were to list the prohibition that is the most fundamental in the Torah it is the prohibition against idolatry. Just as God’s existence is an essential axiom of the Torah that He is one is just as essential. Although God’s existence is not really treated in the Torah (because it is assumed), that He is One is. His unity is treated in the Torah mainly because it is so often either misunderstood or perverted by human beings.¹

When we strive to understand something what is it that we are, essentially trying to understand? When we are reading a work what is it that the author wishes to communicate? The message of the Torah doesn’t seem that it could be any clearer. There is one God. According to the Rambam, Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, “For it is the principal object of the Law and the axis round which it turns, to blot out these opinions from man‘s heart and make the existence of idolatry impossible.”²

This is not just a God of a particular people, Israel, but the God of all mankind. In fact the goal of all should be the destruction of idolatry. Thus the Rambam says, “the actual abolition of idolatry is expressed in the following passage: ’Ye shall destroy their altars, and burn their groves in fire’ (Deut. vii. 5), ’and ye shall destroy their name,’ etc. (xii. 3). These two things are frequently repeated; they form the principal and first object of the whole Law, as our Sages distinctly told us in their traditional explanation of the words ’all that God commanded you by the hand of Moses’ (Num. xv. 23); for they say, ’Hence we learn that those who follow idolatry deny as it were their adhesion [probably too fancy a word for the general reader] to the whole Law, and those who reject idolatry follow as it were the whole Law.’ (B.T. Kidd, 40a) Note it.”³ Essentially the Hebrew Scriptures teach us that God is one, and nothing else is to be worshiped, even as an intermediary between us and the One God.

God is alone.
The Ramchal, Rabbi Moshe Chayim Luzzatto, explained in his “The Way of God” that “It is impossible that there exist more than one being whose existence is intrinsically imperative. Only one being can possibly exist with this necessarily perfect essence, and therefore the only reason all other things have the possibility of existence is that God wills them to exist. All other things therefore depend on Him and do not have intrinsic existence” (Ramchal, 35).⁴

In his work the Ramchal is summing up these important arguments to give us a manageable framework within which we can understand certain things about God. These things are imperative in a quest for truth—specifically in religion. The Ramchal has expressed very beautifully the core understanding of Judaism. God is uniquely One, His existence is necessary because without it nothing else could exist.⁵

Some, such as Hindus, assume an eternal and not-created World "birthed" by another; this is not illogical, but starts with entirely different assumptions that are problematic, since it appears "objectively" that the Universe is not eternal but has a start.

God is non-corporeal
In the history of monotheism, which began with Adam and continues to this day, the beginning of error often begins by attributing some type of physical existence to God. Such error is often the result of misunderstandings of passages in the Torah such as God sees or stands, or knows.

At times the teachers of Israel have had to correct these misunderstandings. The Rambam in “The Guide for the Perplexed” covers this issue in great detail. According to the Rambam, “We have stated, in one of the chapters of this treatise, that there is a great difference between bringing to view the existence of a thing and demonstrating its true essence.”⁶ The fact that God existed and his essence, what He is, are often confused with physical bodies since, “That God exists was therefore shown to ordinary men by means of similes taken from physical bodies; that He is living, by a simile taken from motion, because ordinary men consider only the body as fully, truly, and undoubtedly existing; that which is connected with a body but is itself not a body, although believed to exist, has a lower degree of existence on account of its dependence on the body for existence. That, however, which is neither itself a body, nor a force within a body, is not existent according to man’s first notions, and is above all excluded from the range of imaginations.” and he goes on to say, “…The perception by the senses, especially by hearing and seeing, is best known to us; we have no idea or notion of any other mode of communication between the soul of one person and that of another than by means of speaking, i.e., by the sound produced by lips, tongue, and the other organs of speech. When, therefore, we are to be informed that God has a knowledge of things, and that communication is made by Him to the Prophets who convey it to us, they represent Him to us as seeing and hearing, i.e., as perceiving and knowing those things which can be seen or heard. They represent Him to us as speaking, i.e., that communications from Him reach the Prophets; that is to be understood by the term “prophecy,” as will be fully explained.”⁷

The Rambam’s meaning is that since human beings are limited in their knowledge of existence because we only have and express knowledge through our senses. Human beings often misunderstand the figures of speech in the Tanach about God. Therefore, when we say that God spoke to a prophet it is often understood by most people that God spoke to that prophet through the same organs of communication that we use to communicate with other humans. This is one of the origins of idolatry—wrongly attributing human activities to God. That is why the term ‘prophecy’ will be explained, later in the Rambam's book “The Guide for the Perplexed, to make it clear what is meant by communication between God and a prophet.⁸

God has a unique identity.
No other religion can make the claims of uniqueness that the God of Israel can. This unique identity is absolutely necessary when knowing the true God. Although there are religions that have claimed to be, in some way, servants of the same God as the one professed by the Jewish people, they cannot escape that God has established for Himself a unique identity. This identity is intrinsically connected with the Exodus and Sinai experiences. Not only that, but God is the God of the children of Israel. Although He is the God of all humanity, God identifies Himself with Israel since it is to them that He gave His Torah.

It is through this Torah, as said above, that all nations gain blessing and knowledge of God. Anyone that claims that their god is the same as the God of the Sinai revelation but this god was not known to the Children of Israel at Sinai, or that this god has a different chosen people, or that there is nothing holy about the Torah or that the Torah today is not the same as the Torah of yesterday, or claims that it is not necessary to keep the Torah, this person does not serve the same God of the Jewish people, and has misunderstood something essential about God.⁹

Other “gods”
God addresses Himself to the people of Israel on the issue of the other gods, those that the nations have created for themselves. God makes it clear that His unity is absolute. None of the gods of the nations¹⁰ can make any claim that God can. Not only that, God makes a stronger claim, that the other "gods" are not real at all, but just images of people's invention.

The Universal God
It is a mistake to think that God is the God of only one particular people. That was the claim of the pagan societies. Every people and culture possessed their gods. The powers of these gods were seen to rise and fall with that of their people. Typically the failure of a god to protect its people from the ill fortunes of war led to the people abandoning their god and serving that of their conqueror. If there is one God only, then He must be the God of not just one people; but of all people. God constantly reminds us throughout Scripture that the nations have not been forgotten. They are as much a part of His plan as Israel. The Rabbis teach that the world was created for the Jews so that they could receive Torah, but the Jewish people were created so that they could take that Torah to the world.¹¹

1. Hilchot Avodah Zarah V’Hakot HaGoiim 1:1

2. Rambam, Moreh Nevuchim (“Guide for the Perplexed”). (Dover Publications, Inc. New York) 1956. All quotes from Moreh Nevuchim are taken from this edition unless specified otherwise.

3. Moreh Nevuchim. 320

4. Derech Hashem (“The Way of God”)

5. The following verses attest that God is alone. Deuteronomy 4:35, 39; 32:39; I Samuel 2:2; II Kings 19:19; Isaiah 43:10-11; 44:6-8; 44:24; 45:5-6; 45:21-22; 46:5; 46:9; 48:11; Malachi 2:10; and Nehemiah 9:6

6. Moreh Nevuchim. 59

7. Moreh Nevuchim. 60

8. The following verses attest that God is not a physical being. Numbers 23:19; Deuteronomy 4:11-12; 5:23 I Kings 8:27

9. Examine the following verses concerning the unique identity of God.

The God of the Exodus and Sinai: Exodus 20:2-3; I Kings 8:60; II Kings 19:19; Isaiah 40:18; Isaiah 44:6-8; 44:24; Hosea 13:4; Joel 2:27; Malachi 2:10; Nehemiah 9:6 The God of Avraham, Isaac, and Jacob: Gen. 17:9; 26:3, 24; 28:13; 32:9; Exodus 3:6; 15-16; 4:5; 33:1 Lev. 26:42; Num. 32:11; Deut. 1:8; 6:10; 9:5, 27; 29:13; 30:20; 34:4; I Kings 18:36; 2 Kings 13:23; I Chr. 1:28; 16:16; 29:18; 2 Chr. 20:7; 30:6; Ps. 47:9; 81:4; 105:6, 9, 42; Is. 29:22, 41:8, 51:2The God that gave the Torah: Deut. 4:5-8; 10:12-13; Ps. 81:4 The Holiness of the Torah: Psalm 19:8-9 (7-8); 119:44, 72, 97, 155, 163, 165 The eternality of the Torah: Deut. 29:28 (29); Psalm 111:7-8; Ezekiel 11:19-20

10. The following verses mark out the differences between God and the gods of the nations. Deuteronomy 6:14; I Samuel 2:2; Isaiah 40:18; 40:25; 40:25; 43:10-11; 44:6-8; 46:5; Malachi 2:10; Psalms 81:8-9; I Chronicles 17:20

11. Review the following verses. I Kings 8:50; II Kings 19:19; Isaiah 45:21-22; Malachi 2:10

1.4 Blessing the Name

One of the Laws not understood in the non-Torah world is the prohibition against “blessing”¹ the name. In Sanhedrin 56a the Talmud describes the legal proceedings against a person who “blesses the name.” During the trial the chief witness is asked to tell the court what was said using a euphemism “may Yosi strike Yosi.” Once this is done the court is cleared and only the judges and the witnesses remain. The chief witness is asked to tell the court exactly what the person in question said without the euphemism, using instead the name of God. Once this is done the other witnesses will say “I too heard as him.”

1. In the Talmudic literature (Sanhedrin 56a) and the Mishnah Torah (Avodah Zarah 2:7, Hilchot Melachim 9:3) and other works; the term “blessing the name” is used euphemistically to mean cursing the name of God.

2. This is because the only place where death penalties are mentioned in relation to non-Jews is in Bereishit 9:6. There we are told: “Whoever sheds the blood of man, By man shall his blood be shed…” meaning, we are told that in order for a person to be put to death their blood must be shed. The only death penalty mentioned in the Torah involving shedding blood is decapitation. The Torah describes other death penalties for Jews. Beheading is said to be the least painful death penalty.

3. Exodus 20:7, the prohibition against swearing falsely by God’s name is one of the Ten Commandments.

1.5 Murder

Murder is the most destructive crime one person can commit against another. The effect of this crime is permanent and for the penitent only his or her own death can, in part, remove this stain on the human soul.

From the modern worlds view point it is not always clear what ought to be characterized as murder. Part of the problem is the common mistranslation of thou shalt not "kill", which is more general than "murder." Leading to pacifism, as well as the prohibition of death penalties, which is surely not sound from the Torah viewpoint, this misunderstanding is part of the confusion over what constitutes murder.

Although it is clear that murder is a great evil no matter what perspective you come from, your perspective will determine what is and is not murder. Murder is as relative as style without divine revelation. Anthropologists recognize moral relativity in cannibalistic cultures where eating members of competing tribes is not considered murder, but eating members of one’s own tribe is.

Moral relativism has brought to the surface an issue recognized by the Sages of Israel. Human reason although a powerful tool does not, on its own, reveal absolute moral truths. Only divine revelation can establish absolute moral truth. The exception is with the first two of the ten commandments: That God exists, and His Unity-which the Rambam claims are the only two commandments that human reason, unaided by revelation, are capable of learning on its own.¹

Although it may seem as if this is incorrect because it is very naturally understood what murder means, but we must realize that we know what murder is because our culture has been shaped, in many ways, by the Tanach. We begin with generally correct notions. However, because our culture is becoming increasingly secular defining murder outside of the Tanach has become increasingly popular.

The popularity of secular reasoning has lead to an ambiguous definition of murder. The ethical discussion of murder has taken many strange turns. Most notable of the debates on the definition of murder is coming from the Abortion front (we will cover that later in this paper). Essentially “moral truth” is determined through voting.

It must be admitted that absolute moral truths are only truly known through revelation. God alone can tell us what is good and bad. We see that human beings are capable of mixing things up—sometimes intentionally.² Human reason27 is not up to the task of determining moral truth. We must look to God for guidance. According to Judaism God’s guidance exists in a very practical format-Halachah.

Murder versus killing

There are two primary categories of death caused by humans to other humans. The first is killing and the other is murder. Killing, although not good, is distinct from murder in that it does not have the judgment of evil that murder does. Killing involves issues of self-defense, certain kinds of wars, and executing criminals. Murder is the intention of stealing the life of one human being for reasons not recognized as tolerable by God. Under Murder we find abortion, euthanasia, putting someone in harms way and so forth. There are wars where the killing is considered murder and is not excusable as simply killing as it might be for legitimate wars.

The heinousness of murder compels us to understand it in all of its facets. Controversy in our world over what is and is not murder surrounds us. Allowing the innocent to die because we do not correctly acknowledge acts of murder is reprehensible. It is our duty to understand what murder is.

Killing, although not good, is sometimes necessary. We will examine a variety of categories of types of killing and we will learn where killing is “allowed” and where it is not.

War Time

War is perhaps the best example of killing that may not be murder. However, war is also an excuse, often, for murder. Killing in a war is morally wrong when the object of that war is not just. If it is a grab for power or money or some other unjust reason killing in war is murder. A war may be just but individuals can still commit acts of murder. [while this is OK as far as it goes, it is NOT clear; it raises perhaps as many questions as it answers.]

Self Defense

If a person is attacked he has every right to protect himself. However, just because a person is attacked they do not have complete freedom to kill their attacker. Even if the attacker’s intent was to kill their victim this does not open the door to killing the attacker if you can stop the attacker by destroying one of his limbs then that is how he must be stopped. If there is no alternative then you are allowed to kill to protect your life or the life of someone else.

Abortion

Abortion is the most controversial issue in America today. Supreme Court Nominees are interrogated on this issue. On college campuses across the nation students participate in debates on this subject. Probably the most difficult aspect of the debate is that it is very emotional—on both sides.

Members in the pro-choice camp claim that the issue centers around a woman’s right to choose. They offer several reasons that the woman’s right to choose supercedes the child’s right to live. The question comes down to an ethical one. This is one reason that so much energy has been focused on the question of whether or not a child in the mother’s womb is a human being.

Several suggestions have been made to determine if the child has a right to life or if it is nothing more than a collection of pre-human tissue that can be destroyed-much like the egg yoke of an egg is not yet a chicken.

Without revelation the question of when human life begins is open to debate.³ We can certainly determine when biological life begins-and that’s almost immediately. Whether or not the biological mass of tissue is human or not is probably a question science cannot answer, depending on what is meant by “human.”

Engaging the ethical debate on human life, the fetus, and what murder is is a complex issue. When debating this argument from a human perspective without revelation the answer to the question can go either way ethically. Ethics not based on God is not ethics it is custom and etiquette. Secularized ethics is as unpredictable and changing as popular fads in music and society.

The question that must concern us is what is God’s opinion on this issue? Only by engaging the question from this perspective can we hope to find the true answer to this question.

There are times when abortion is permitted according to Halachah. That time is when it is a matter of life or death. If a woman is about to give birth and it turns out that by having the child the mother will die she is obligated to have an abortion. This brings us to a complex issue. Why is the mother commanded to have an abortion versus allowing the child to be born? How can we decide which life is more valuable? Shmot⁴ gives a scenario where a pregnant woman finds herself in between two men while they are fighting. In the first scenario she miscarries and the culprit is “fined,” but in the second scenario she is killed. The second scenario is punished like a murder case, while the first scenario is addressed through monetary compensation. Why the difference? A baby before its head exits the birth canal is considered a potential life. To go even further the child is considered to be like the woman’s thigh, i.e., a part of her body!

This is astonishing considering pro-choice proponents have long made the same claim. According to them the baby is like a part of the woman’s body and therefore she may do with it as she sees fit! It is interesting that both Jewish Law and pro-choice begin at the same point (that the baby is like the woman’s body), but they come to two very different conclusions.

One might wonder why the Sages of Israel did not conclude that abortion was okay. Remember, the baby has the status of potential life.

The Sages drew a very different conclusion because the Oral Torah is clear on this issue. If a baby is like a part of the woman’s body (her thigh), then how would most people react to one of their limbs being cut off? In truth, only a life or death situation will cause people to choose to cut off a limb. Although there are some who even risk death rather than part with a limb!

Even more than that, the baby is still a potential life. If someone is going defend the removal of their limb, which they can live without, it would seem even more they would defend the child growing in the mother’s womb.

It is only when the (potential) life of the baby threatens the (actual) life of the mother that an abortion becomes an acceptable solution. However, once the baby’s head exits the birth canal the mother and baby are equally alive. That means that the situation becomes one life versus another. Since neither baby nor mother’s life is more valuable we are not allowed to choose one life over another.

Some would argue that a Noachide is never allowed to perform an abortion whether the mother’s life is in jeopardy or not. To defend this claim they site a certain understanding of “rodef” or pursuer (lit. someone who is trying to kill another person) as support for this position. It seems clear that the Torah’s approach to abortion is not nearly as black and white as it is with Christians. However, we must appreciate on this issue at least Christians (and Muslims) are on the right page.

Abortion under certain circumstances is a heinous crime-it is murder. The abortion issue is a very emotional one, but emotion does not remove our responsibility. What it does do is create a more sympathetic and caring ear to our fellow-or it should.

Euthanasia

Suffering is one of the most difficult things for many of us to ignore. The idea that a person must suffer and that is somehow pleasing to God is hard to swallow. There is no other issue that brings this issue to the front more than euthanasia.

Euthanasia is a procedure where we end a person’s life with the "excuse of mercy.” This is one way that it is presented although it is also used to relieve the suffering (often economic but also emotional) of family whose loved ones languish in bed, comatose, never able to wake.

Euthanasia is another very emotional subject. In America it is an issue almost as hotly debated as abortion. However, it is slightly different from abortion in that there is often choice involved in the decision to end a life. Usually it is the decision of the person suffering to end their life. If the argument “my body my choice” works for abortion then it certainly works for euthanasia.

As to those who are unable to make this decision it lay at the feet of their loved ones who now make a very hard decision. The moral defense for their action “the person is better off,” or like the mother considering abortion who feels it unfair that such a responsibility be thrown on them especially when economically it does not seem that they are capable of carrying the burden, the good of the family member is primary to that of the person who is sick. None of these are reasons according to the Torah.

Allowing a Person to remain in peril

According to Hilchot Melachim⁵ a person who directly places another person in peril is just as guilty of murder as the intentional murderer. If someone puts another in a state of peril as a result of an action, a person bound or trapped before a dangerous animal for example, it is the individual and not the animal that is guilty for murdering the person.

1. Rambam, Guide for the Perplexed, p. 222

2. “Woe to those who call evil *good,* and good evil; who put darkness for light, and light for darkness; who put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter…” (Isaiah 5:20).

3. For More information see “Philosophy, Reason and Revelation”—coming soon

4. The Oral tradition is very clear that “A gentile who slays a human being, even a fetus in its mother’s womb, must be executed [in retribution] for its [death]. Hilchot Melachim 9:4.

5. Exodus 21:22

1.6 Immoral Sex

Marriage in the Noachide world is at once straight forward and complex. The complexity mainly comes from the consensus that marriage is only real if two people are called “married” in a written contract. The Noachide model does not require a contract, or any formal documentation or ceremony to signify that two people are married.

This is backward to our way of thinking but not to the Torah’s approach to the issue. Marriage with the first man and woman had nothing to do with contracts, only a mutual decision to be one. The patriarch Isaac and his wife Rachel were married when Isaac took Rachel into his mother’s tent (with her consent).Without consent, it is rape, a form of theft of the person.

Part of what adds to our confusion over the simplicity of Torah marriage is that those who know anything about Judaism know that a contract is required for a Jewish marriage. One might ask why a contract is required for a Jew but not a Gentile. The answer to this question is the same to most other situations where the Jewish people are called on to do something extra, or to do something in a slightly different way. As a Kingdom of Priests and a Holy Nation the Jewish people must always be separate or distinct from the rest of humanity; and as priests they are required to be holy. Their status as a holy nation, a kingdom of priests, means that they must hold themselves up to a higher level of strictness.

Although the Noachide laws are less strict on the definition of marriage, if properly observed the Noachide laws maintain and promote holiness within marriage. All human beings are required to be Holy. We all must strive to separate ourselves from the profane and attach ourselves to the Holy One-God. Marriage, universally accomplishes this.

Who Can Marry?

In our day there is debate on what constitutes marriage. Given the gay rights movement that wishes to have its relationships recognized as marriage, it is important for us to have a clear understanding of what marriage is. There are those that say marriage is only constituted by a piece of paper or by a ceremony. If this is so then anyone should be able to get married. Others argue that because it is only a piece of paper it cannot give voice to what a real relationship is between a man and a woman or two men or two women or between a man and his sheep or a woman and her dog and so forth.

It appears that people have become confused over the entire marriage business. In the non-Jewish world the marriage contract is an invention of society to clarify business and legal matters. A determination of who is married and who is not will lead to taxing status, financial rights in banking matters, and life and death decisions. Such contracts have nothing to do with the spiritually significant relationship between a man and a woman in a Holy relationship blessed by God.

Marriage understood from the Torah perspective is defined primarily as a relationship that is not one of six kinds of relationships (for Noachides). A Noachide Marriage cannot exist if it is between a man and his mother, a man and his father’s wife, a man and a married woman, a man and his maternal sister, a man and another man, a man and an animal.This leaves a relationship of a man with an unmarried woman as the proper definition of who can get married for Noachides.

Marriage

Since Noachides do not have a marriage contract there must be some way of determining who is married and who is not. A marriage is not only a private agreement between two people but also a publicly known (assuming they live around people) exclusive relationship (exclusive between a man and a woman although it is still possible for a man to have several wives).

The Torah says¹: “Therefore, a man shall leave his father and his mother and be united with his wife and they shall become one flesh.” This verse implies that a man will leave the home of his parents and create a new home with his wife. Meaning, they will live together.

Living together in a home is a public statement that the couple is exclusive to one another. Once the public and private (the relationship has been consummated) nature of the relationship has been established the couple is considered married.

Divorce

A Couple is considered divorced when either partner leaves the common domain (or home).² This method is far easier than having to get a “Get” or article of divorce (as is necessary for the Jewish people who sign a marriage contract). It allows either partner to end the relationship, not just the husband as is true under Jewish marriage.

1. Hilchot Melachim 9:4

2. Bereishit 2:24

1.7 Stealing

Theft was the first sin committed in the Torah when Adam ate the fruit. God specified that everything in the Garden was available to Adam except for the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Theft is the most common sin that human beings commit against one another. It is also one of the most complex of the Noahide Laws.

For many this law seems rudimentary; easily avoided by even a child. It just isn’t true, what constitutes theft is a very difficult issue. It is an issue that is treated in great detail by the Jewish people

It is possible to steal in many different ways. If someone takes pens from the office or sits at their computer at work playing Tetris instead of working they are stealing. If someone takes something without the express permission of the owner they are stealing. What is even worse is that for Noahides there are no minimum amounts. Although punishment, ultimately, is the prerogative of the court, a Noahide could be liable for death.

It is very important for Noahides to understand the Noahide laws thoroughly to avoid violating any of the prohibitions. In order to do this one must first understand the boundaries of ownership. Only then is it possible to know when something has been stolen. It is not the purpose of this paper to explicitly detail ownership and theft, but it is our aim to give a basic introduction to this issue.

Business

We are constantly confronted every day with the decision to steal or not in our lives. The most common way we face this challenge is with our business dealings. These dealings can take the form of business, work, and private commerce.

When merchants deal with each other or their customers it is important that their dealings be honest. Anyone who gives less than they promised at time of sale or takes more than they paid for is committing theft.

The “ethical” technicalities allowed by most countries are unacceptable by the Torah standard. The Torah requires us to be exacting in our business dealings. Abuse of money exchanges is the surest sign of a corrupt society and is very often complained of by the Biblical prophets.


Employees

A person who works for another is obligated to work hard and make sure that the person who is purchasing their services is getting the work they paid for. An employee is obligated to always be working and to leave personal issues for after work. If there is an expectation that the person is working then that person must work; otherwise they are stealing money from their employer. Using the internet and using printers to print things for personal use is considered theft unless it is part of the employment agreement; which should spell out all rights of the employee to use the employer's property, time, etc., if that is intended. The employee is stealing the paper, toner, time (that they should be working) and electricity it costs to print things from the internet or computer. If it is necessary for the employee to use these objects for personal use an arrangement should be made with their employer, otherwise such activity is forbidden.

Employers

An employer is obligated to pay their employees in a timely fashion. Otherwise they are stealing the wages from their employee. This includes reimbursing the employee for expenses (if that is in agreement with the terms of service).

Property from Work

It may seem trivial but taking the property of an employer or company someone works for is theft; pens, notebooks, staplers, or anything else belonging to the company. The use of these items is assumed to be for the purpose of work. Even the theft of a single staple is unacceptable as there are no minimum amounts for Noahides, however, that does not mean that Jews may take minimal amounts, but that a court will not handle a claim for the return of a single staple, unless it has a certain value, which is unlikely. Theft in any amount is theft. If not punished in the earthly court, because there is no witness or no court willing to handle the case; it will be punished by the heavenly court.

Lost Objects

It is an obligation for every person to return a lost article to his friend if he is able. People loose things all the time, money, wallets, cell phones and so forth. A just society is one that has respect for the property of others. It is also important that for us to return something lost by another we demonstrate our respect for the rights of that individual and thus emphasize and strengthen our own rights to property.

Which items must we return?

Clearly an item that has the person’s name or symbol on it ought to be returned to its owner. It does not matter if the person is rich or poor or if the amount or object lost is small or great. It must be returned.

If money is found then it is also obligatory to get the money to the person who lost it. This is more difficult because there is not any label or sign that tells us who it belongs to. However, people are always mindful of their money and the knowledge of the missing amount is itself a sign of ownership. In the case of lost money, the owner may be identified by their knowledge of how much was lost or other signs.

When does lost property become ownerless?

A lost object is returnable only so long as the owner of the property has not given up on recovering the object. If for example he states that he will never recover the item then the object is considered ownerless.

An object may also become ownerless if it were lost at sea, in a lake or river, since it is unlikely that the object will ever be recovered. The circumstance of the loss of the object automatically classifies it as ownerless.

  

  

1.4 Establish Courts of Justice

Society only functions because of the rule of law. There are two types of law, that created by man and that created by God. Law created by human beings can be good and just and relevant-it can also be fickle. The importance of law is such that it reflects the righteousness or wickedness of a society. Sodom and Gomorrah used law as a means to express their wickedness and a way to oppress its citizens and those who visited their cities. Torah observant Israel is marked out as being a wise people by the nations because of their laws. The Noachide Laws in their most basic form are meant to keep the world from becoming decadent.

Halachah and the Jewish People

The Jewish people have a responsibility to teach, explain, and help spread knowledge of the Halachah for B’nei Noah (children of Noah). They were set as a “kingdom of priests,” they are the priesthood of the entire world and as such they have a responsibility to minister to the entire world.

Courts of Justice by the Noachides

Noachides have an obligation to establish courts of Justice. They also have an obligation to implement the Halachah that is determined by the Sanhedrin of the Jewish people. The Sanhedrin has the responsibility of establishing Halachah for the entire world. What does it mean for Noachides to have courts of justice if the Sanhedrin establishes halachah? It means that just like the Jewish people have lower courts so too are the Noachide courts a lower court. Matters of Halachah are taken to the Sanhedrin when it is too hard for us to decide. The Sanhedrin is the Supreme Court of the world. Noachide courts can function independently of each other; but when a difficult issue arises it must be taken to the Sanhedrin and their ruling becomes law.

Noachide Judges

Noachide court systems imply Noachide judges. Such judges must be masters of Noachide Halachah. They must be able to understand, interpret and define Noachide halachah. Only when an issue is too great for them will they take it to the “Supreme Court” of Noachide halachah-the Sanhedrin.

A Noachide Judge must share the same qualities as Jewish Judges. Noachide Judges must be fair neither leaning toward the rich or the poor; they must themselves be upright individuals who live by the Noachide laws, rich in Torah learning, most especially, they must have the fear of heaven upon them.

Courts

A Noachide Court only requires one judge to pass judgement. Even in the case of a capital offense. A Noachide Court can be made up of Noachides, Jews¹ or both. However, a woman cannot serve as a judge as is the case of Jewish Judges.² Noachides are obligated to set up courts within every major town.³ The purpose of these courts is to enforce the other six Noachide Laws.

Witnesses

A Noachide may be found guilty (and if a capital case) be executed on the basis of a single eye witness.⁴ A Noachide does not have to be warned before hand as is the case with Jews. A Noachide can be convicted based on the testimony of a relative, although not on the testimony of a woman.⁵

1. Hilchot Melachim U’Milchamot

2. Such Jews are appointed by the Sanhedrin because Noachides have not fulfilled their obligation to establish courts of justice. This seems particular to the Land of Israel with Garim Toshavim (resident aliens) see Hilchot Melachim U’Milchamot 10:11.

3. Hilchot Melachim U’Milchamot 9:14

4. Hilchot Melachim U’Milchamot 9:14. A major city is one that contains 120 men in it.

5. ibid.

1.4 Eating the limb of a live animal

The prohibition against eating the limb of a living animal (or Ever Min ChaHai) is not as straight forward as it seems. There is no such thing as minimum amounts for Noachides (this is also important in regard to theft). If someone is cooking a stew and the tiniest amount of E”MC meat finds its way into the stew the entire stew is forbidden to be eaten.¹

Ever Min HaChai (E”MC) in contemporary society

Many people believe that our world is too advanced, or civilized, to allow such barbaric behavior as eating the limb of a living animal.However, it may surprise people to know that even in our day and age these activities continue. Rocky Mountain Oysters (castrated testicles of bulls) is an example of E”MC.

Additionally if an animal is slaughtered but not yet dead by halachic standards when it is being cut up, the meat of that animal is considered E”MC.

Although it is possible to say the reason for the prohibition against eating the limb of a living animal is that God does not wish humans to be cruel to animals, it is important to note that we are never told that this is in fact the reasoning behind this law. It is a logical possibility. Although it may be argued that it is hard to say why any of the Noahide commandments is included to the exclusion of lots of other possibilities, other than the prohibition of idol worship.

“Kosher” Slaughter for Noachides

An animal is properly slaughtered if it has stopped moving before it is carved up. An animal is considered alive even if “one severs the two signs that distinguish it as having been slaughtered in a kosher manner, as long as the animal moves convulsively, the limbs and meat which are separated from it are forbidden…”² However; if the head is completely severed from the animal then it is considered dead.

1. Hilchot Melachim U’Milchamot 9:14. A major city is one that contains 120 men in it.

2. There are those that teach that even the utensils become unusable for Noachides. However, laws involving “koshering” utensils are largely Rabbinic. Rabbinic Laws do not apply to Noachides, unless they are Rabbinic Laws from an actual Sanhedrin. Such a Rabbinic Law would need to be aimed at explaining Noachide Halachah.

21. The Noahide Laws: Their Meaning and Logic

2. Why study Torah?

By Noahide standards, the question “Why study Torah” is a new one.

For a couple of millennia, studying Torah has been forgotten by non-Jews or the study of false religions has taken precedence. Of course, a minority of non-Jews have learned it — or at least read it in bite-sized chunks every Shabbat.

But this is the 21st century, and just because the number of people studying Noahide Torah has been shrinking over the millennia does not mean this trend must continue.  So, what is the answer?

We’ll need to do a bit of defining first. After all, there are three key words in this question which are not as obvious as they might look – Noahide Torah and study.  The words Noahide Torah mean a multiplicity of things, which in itself might be a cause to study it at least a bit. After all, even if you choose to reject Torah it makes sense to know what it is you are rejecting, if only in outline form.

Many sincere Noahides, who read the Torah regularly, simply sit and contemplate the text.   Sadly, in terms of the Chumash, many Noahides will pick out those bits that seem most telling for them – a rich story or an important teaching.

But that’s not the best way of understanding. The act of reading is not good enough unless it involves the act of study and then the actual follow through on that which was learned.  Every text of Torah is an invitation to wonder. Torah is never simply obvious. The fundamentalist way is, “If that’s what it says, then that’s what it means.” The Jewish approach has always been, “If that’s what it says, then what does it mean?” Each reading demands an explanation.  And, it should be for Noahides as well.

This is what is meant by study. By all means, use your own intellectual resources. After all, the Torah belongs to everyone. But let us also be honest about our own limitations. Do not think that everything you can think is everything that can be thought. The thoughtful Noahide, the humble scholar, can stand on the shoulders of giants and use their thinking too.

So, study in this sense involves exploration, challenge, questioning, entering into a conversation with the voices of the our past and our global present.

Now to the real why.

To be simply utilitarian about it, the mind training involved in teasing out a text, checking the authenticity of our understanding of the translation, and digging as deeply as possible into the implications and consequences of each line has been shown to be of massive intellectual and educational value to students through the ages.

It is not as a result of genetics that Jews have regularly shown themselves to be successful scholars. It’s nurture, not nature. The tradition of Torah study has built up a tradition of questioning and clarifying which is simply an incomparably rich skill to cultivate. The same holds true for non-Jews.

But studying Torah gives much more than that. The first book is a magnificently complex record of (often disastrous) human relations. A close study of Genesis will tell you everything you need to know about family dynamics and how to get them wrong. It stretches and challenges our understanding of human responsibility and the order of the world. It goes over and over how spouses might behave toward each other and how siblings, parents and children can mess up – and sometimes come right too.  Noahides should pay particular attention to Genesis.

The remaining four books of the Torah are a close study in how to organize a society. It is not for nothing that the founding fathers of America as well as the early British parliamentarians who challenged the concept of the divine right of kings looked to the Torah, to find guidance for how a society should be organized.

The demand for Jews to care for the stranger – the most repeated injunction in the whole Torah — has not yet been fully grasped in all its implications by Jews, let alone the rest of humanity. The laws of inheritance, damages, social responsibility, warfare, property, inclusion, environmental care – you name it, it can be found in the Torah and the commentaries that arise therefrom for both Jews and Gentiles.

The Torah asks us to consider miracles — what they are, if they exist, and how they work. It warns us not to trust miracle-makers, and yet 21st century folk are still easily misled. It describes a world in which virtue is not the sole province of the Jews or even of Jewish leaders. The good are sometimes Jewish and sometimes not. And, certainly, it offers a world where Jews and Noahides are often backsliding and of poor quality. Even Moses fails a final test. Yet, despite all of this it continues to play an optimistic and upbeat tune.

This essay can only scratch the surface of the question, “Why Study Torah” which might compel us to study it. But in the end, it boils down to this: Why would you choose to be an ignorant Noahide? Surely you owe yourself – and the friends you can study it with – a better fate than that.

At the end of the day, when we pray we are speaking to God, when we study Torah it is God speaking to us.  If we do not study the depths of what He wants from us we will never hear Him speak.

What do others have to say?

Why should one study Torah? Because it is only through Torah that one can fulfill the one commandment that is the end goal of the entire Torah-the love of God. Why should one study Torah? Because the study brings man close to the source of all reality-the Creator of the Universe. Why should one study Torah? Because through the study of Torah man attains the highest possible state of human existence-the very purpose for which he was created. It is for this reason he was endowed with the "Tzelem Elokim," his divine element. All else that a person may do in life is only a means for the state of mind derived from the learning of Torah. It is the most satisfying state of human existence attainable; one that gives man his true happiness. According to Judaism man's psyche was specifically designed for this experience. In it all psychic energies are involved in a sublime joy and appreciation of intellectual beautification. As such it is the most gratifying experience possible for man. 
Rabbi Yisrael Chait

Regarding Torah study, in contrast, the lofty sanctity of the Torah itself is truly above all other actions, so that one who is involved in Torah study lishma (for the right reasons) is made great and elevated over all things. The completeness of a man upon grasping the truths of Torah, even when he does not do an action based on it, is greater and higher than the improvement that he receives from the actions that Torah study enables him to fulfill correctly. Therefore, even though one’s actions are improved only after he has learned, when the knowledge is in place and enables him to act correctly, still the blessing on the Torah that is of Torah origin is the one before the study. This lets us know that the heights of the value of the Torah are in the quest for the knowledge, in and of itself. The study itself is what we refer to as "our life and the length of our days." This is what we gain right away as we start to learn. 
HaRav Avraham Yitzchak HaCohen Kook

“[T]he nations of the world can only recognize the Torah as the source of all the sparks of truth that their religions contain if they are exposed to the entire Torah in all its glory,” he explained. “They must study Torah in a way that reveals its depth and its profound relevance to their own lives.”
Rabbi Yitzchak Ginsburgh

The Gemara raises an objection to Rabbi Yoḥanan’s statement from a baraita: Rabbi Meir would say: From where is it derived that even a gentile who engages in Torah study is considered like a High Priest? It is derived from that which is stated: “You shall therefore keep My statutes and My ordinances, which if a man does he shall live by them” (Leviticus 18:5). The phrase: Which if priests, Levites, and Israelites do they shall live by them, is not stated, but rather: “A man,” which indicates mankind in general. You have therefore learned that even a gentile who engages in Torah study is considered like a High Priest.

Talmud - Sanhedrin 59a

“A time is coming—declares my God—when I will send a famine upon the land: not a hunger for bread or a thirst for water, but for hearing the words of Hashem.”  Amos 8:11

Simply put, the Torah maintains that the righteous Gentiles of all nations (those observing the Seven Laws of Noah) have a place in the World to Come.  But if you do not study the depths of these laws there is no way you can observe them.

3. Interpreting Torah

The uniqueness of the traditional approach to Torah interpretation cannot be emphasized enough.  Jewish biblical interpretation exists in a completely different universe than non-Jewish modes of biblical interpretation.  In fact, they overlap so little that no amount of background in biblical studies can prepare one for the unique approach that has been used by the Jewish people for centuries since the Torah’s giving at Sinai.

In many non-Jewish (by implication, non-Noahide) religions, the Tanakh, the Torah, Prophets and Writings, are all treated with equal authority.  Some even treat the later prophets with greater authority than the Torah itself.

This is not how Torah is viewed by those of Jewish, and by extension, Noahide faith. We view the Torah, Prophets, and Writings as hierarchical – there is an order of greater and lesser authority. 

At the pinnacle of this hierarchy are the five books of the written Torah – the Chumash.  They are the final, permanent, crystallization of God’s will for mankind. The Torah will never be replaced or superseded by any other future covenant or revelation.

In the textual realm, the Torah is the primary text for deriving law and practice for both Jews and Noahides.

The Five Books of Moses (the Chumash) is the most succinct possible written expression of Torah.  However, the written Torah is only a gateway, an entry point into the larger world of Torah.

The Torah has many ambiguities but the Psalms refer to the Torah as perfect:

The Torah of God is perfect, restoring the soul…   Psalms 19:8

There are a great many ambiguities in the Torah, so how then can a perfect text contain so many ambiguities?  The answer is that Torah is not merely the text of the Torah.  There is an orally transmitted, experiential component to the Torah, one which clarifies the ambiguities and, in combination with the written text, is called perfect.   There are a number of sources for the need of the Oral Transmission:  Albo, Sefer HaIkkarim III: 23. For other proofs to the necessity of an orally transmitted component of the Torah, see Kuzari 3:35; Moreh Nevuchim I:71; Rashbatz in Mogen Avos Chelek HaFilosofi II:3; Rashbash Duran in Milchemes Mitzvah, Hakdama I. See also Rashi to Eruvin 21b s.v. VeYoser; Gur Aryeh to Shemos 34:27.

The Oral law exists for a number of reasons:

• It explains concepts that cannot be fully captured in writing,
• It defines unusual or rare terminology,
• Most importantly, it provides a system of interpretation. This system of interpretation is crucial because it gives us three things:

                a. It guides us in the application of the Torah to new situations and new scenarios,
                b. It gives us standards and guidelines by which we can evaluate the legitimacy of interpretations and applications of the Torah, and
                c. It provides a means by which we can reconstruct any details of correct observance should it become blurred or forgotten due to exile and oppression.

Mesorah - Transmission

The most important element in validating interpretations of the written and oral Torah is the concept of Mesorah. Mesorah is, without question, the greatest proof to the authenticity of any concept, practice, or interpretation.

The closest translation Mesora is probably “transmission,” the giving over of information. It refers to an unbroken chain of transmission from the revelation at Sinai until the present time. Authenticity of concepts and practices is strongly based upon Mesorah.

Even archaeological evidence does not carry the authority of the Mesorah. Archaeology is concerned with reconstructing forgotten things based upon a minute amount of evidence. Mesorah is known information transmitted from generation to generation without having been forgotten. When a known break occurs in the Mesorah, the chain of transmission, and it has a practical effect on observance, we do not attempt to resurrect the Mesorah based on archaeological evidence. For example, knowing which cities in Israel were walled in ancient times is important for a number of laws.  The Mesorah, transmitted knowledge, is what we rely on to determine which cities were walled. Archaeological evidence is insufficient proof.

Writing Down the Oral Law

For much of Jewish History, the oral Torah was not written down. It was part  and parcel of the culture of a unified people living in a single location. Its integrity was also maintained by a central authority, the Sanhedrin. However, as the threat of exile loomed large and the Sanhedrin’s authority waned under Roman persecution, the Rabbis realized that the transmission of Torah study and Mesorah was in danger.

They began to write down as much of the material as possible. Their vision for this redaction was two-fold:

• To create a representative literature of the oral component of Torah in a form that was compact and efficient for study and memorization, and
• Create a statement of the oral law that, by way of study, would teach and preserve the correct method of Torah study and interpretation.

The final product of this effort was the Mishnah.

3.1  Interpreting Torah II

The uniqueness of the traditional approach to Torah interpretation cannot be emphasized enough.  Jewish biblical interpretation exists in a completely different universe than non-Jewish modes of biblical interpretation.  In fact, they overlap so little that no amount of background in biblical studies can prepare one for the unique approach that has been used by the Jewish people for centuries since the Torah’s giving at Sinai.

In many non-Jewish (by implication, non-Noahide) religions, the Tanakh, the Torah, Prophets and Writings, are all treated with equal authority.  Some even treat the later prophets with greater authority than the Torah itself.

This is not how Torah is viewed by those of Jewish, and by extension, Noahide faith. We view the Torah, Prophets, and Writings as hierarchical – there is an order of greater and lesser authority. 

At the pinnacle of this hierarchy are the five books of the written Torah – the Chumash.  They are the final, permanent, crystallization of God’s will for mankind. The Torah will never be replaced or superseded by any other future covenant or revelation.

In the textual realm, the Torah is the primary text for deriving law and practice for both Jews and Noahides.

The Torah has many ambiguities but the Psalms refer to the Torah as perfect:

The Torah of God is perfect, restoring the soul…   Psalms 19:8

There are a great many ambiguities in the Torah, so how then can a perfect text contain so many ambiguities?  The answer is that Torah is not merely the text of the Torah.  There is an orally transmitted, experiential component to the Torah, one which clarifies the ambiguities and, in combination with the written text, is called perfect.   There are a number of sources for the need of the Oral Transmission:  Albo, Sefer HaIkkarim III: 23. For other proofs to the necessity of an orally transmitted component of the Torah, see Kuzari 3:35; Moreh Nevuchim I:71; Rashbatz in Mogen Avos Chelek HaFilosofi II:3; Rashbash Duran in Milchemes Mitzvah, Hakdama I. See also Rashi to Eruvin 21b s.v. VeYoser; Gur Aryeh to Shemos 34:27.

The Oral law exists for a number of reasons:

• It explains concepts that cannot be fully captured in writing,
• It defines unusual or rare terminology,
• Most importantly, it provides a system of interpretation. This system of interpretation is crucial because it gives us three things:

                a. It guides us in the application of the Torah to new situations and new scenarios,
                b. It gives us standards and guidelines by which we can evaluate the legitimacy of interpretations and applications of the Torah, and
                c. It provides a means by which we can reconstruct any details of correct observance should it become blurred or forgotten due to exile and oppression.

Mesorah - Transmission

The most important element in validating interpretations of the written and oral Torah is the concept of Mesorah. Mesorah is, without question, the greatest proof to the authenticity of any concept, practice, or interpretation.

The closest translation Mesora is probably “transmission,” the giving over of information. It refers to an unbroken chain of transmission from the revelation at Sinai until the present time. Authenticity of concepts and practices is strongly based upon Mesorah.

Even archaeological evidence does not carry the authority of the Mesorah. Archaeology is concerned with reconstructing forgotten things based upon a minute amount of evidence. Mesorah is known information transmitted from generation to generation without having been forgotten. When a known break occurs in the Mesorah, the chain of transmission, and it has a practical effect on observance, we do not attempt to resurrect the Mesorah based on archaeological evidence. For example, knowing which cities in Israel were walled in ancient times is important for a number of laws.  The Mesorah, transmitted knowledge, is what we rely on to determine which cities were walled. Archaeological evidence is insufficient proof.

Writing Down the Oral Law

For much of Jewish History, the oral Torah was not written down. It was part  and parcel of the culture of a unified people living in a single location. Its integrity was also maintained by a central authority, the Sanhedrin. However, as the threat of exile loomed large and the Sanhedrin’s authority waned under Roman persecution, the Rabbis realized that the transmission of Torah study and Mesorah was in danger.

They began to write down as much of the material as possible. Their vision for this redaction was two-fold:

• To create a representative literature of the oral component of Torah in a form that was compact and efficient for study and memorization, and
• Create a statement of the oral law that, by way of study, would teach and preserve the correct method of Torah study and interpretation.

The final product of this effort was the Mishnah.

3.2  Interpreting Torah III

Rabbinic Authority

Experts in the above texts have been given authority to decide issues.  This is found in numerous places in the Torah text itself (i.e. Ex. 18:20, Deuteronomy 16:18 and 17:8–13).  Not only this, but they have also been given the authority to make decrees to safeguard the laws of the Torah.  Their authority is also hierarchical.

Deciding Halakhah (Actual Practice)

The system of deciding religious practice, Halakhah, is part and parcel of Torah.  The system of Halakhah exists to preserve the Mesorah and to fill in gaps when they occur.  The majority of rabbis are not trained in deciding matters of Halakhah.  Those who are capable are known as poskim (decisors, or singular posek) or Dayanim (judges – singular Dayan).  A posek or Dayan must:

• Be fluent in the hierarchies of Torah authority and rules of derivation and interpretation,
• Have a complete mastery of the source materials,
• Possess sufficient scholarship to understand how a decision in one area will affect the “homeostasis” of the entire halakhic system,
• Thoroughly understand the boundaries of Mesorah and evaluate decisions in its context.

The structure of rabbinic authority in exile is a meritocracy.  he greater and more accomplished a scholar, the greater the authority he holds.  No scholar today, however, can overrule an accepted decision from an authority in an earlier era of Torah scholarship.

Eras of Torah Scholarship and Authority

Since the destruction of the Temple and worldwide dispersion of the Torah community, there has been a constant global effort to unify and preserve Torah observance in exile.  The Torah world has gone through many stages in accomplishing that goal.

The Gaonim - (The Respected or Eminent Ones) 700 to 1000 CE

From about the 7th until the 11th century (when the Jewish community began to spread beyond the Middle East, settling in Spain, Africa, France, and Germany) the exile communities corresponded frequently with the Gaonim, the leaders of the remaining academies of Torah study in the Middle East.  The Gaonim answered questions and compiled guidelines for them on prayer and holiday observances...

The Rishonim - (The Early Scholars) 1000 to 1500 CE

The Jewish community eventually abandoned the Middle East as the centers of scholarship shifted to Spain, Germany, and France.  The scholars in these countries established their own schools and produced producing extensive, foundational commentaries on the Talmud and the Torah.  They were known as the Rishonim.

Koviim - (The Establishers) 1500 to 1680 CE

The Koviim sought to collect and systematize all of the scholarship produced in the diaspora to produce a unified form of Torah observance in the exile. Their work  is the basis of all Jewish practice today.  The most important of the Koviim is Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488 – 1575).  He literally collected, studied, compiled, and systematized every known piece of Torah thought produced since the exile.  His magnum opus was the Shulchan Aruch, the Set Table - a complete statement of Jewish practice in exile.  It is a massive work based upon the thought of thousands of Torah scholars working for over 1000 years.  It is the basis of all Jewish practice today.

The Acharonim - (The Later Scholars) 1680 to 2013?

With the Shulchan Aruch’s acceptance, the rabbinic world now had a launch pad – a universal foundation – from which to work.  There was a sudden boom in all areas of Torah scholarship.  The generations of scholars following the Koviim are known as the Acharonim.

With the death of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef in 2013, many believe that we are entering a new era in Jewish scholarship.  The nature of this era has yet to be defined.

4. Noahide Laws on Abortion

A WARNING

Any practical questions of abortion must be asked to a competent posek¹. Issues of life and death cannot be determined by most Rabbis, especially those who are experts in the Noahide laws. The question must be asked to an impartial noted authority in Jewish Law [posek]. Any posek capable of ruling on such issues will have expertise in the application of these laws to Noahides far beyond that of any expert or specialist in the Noahide laws.

Abortion is one of the few topics in the Noahide Laws for which there is extensive literature. The downside of so much being written is that even a cursory survey of the literature is far beyond the scope of this course.

Abortion in the Noahide Laws

Abortion falls under the category of murder within the Noahide laws. In Jewish law, abortion is also prohibited. However the details and sources of the prohibitions are different. They are so different that by studying the Jewish laws of abortion it is possible to come to the conclusion that killing a fetus is not murder for Noahides. The Talmud, however, teaches us that this is not so.

Rebbi Yishmael (Sanhedrin 59a)makes an observation on the following verse: (Gen. 9:6.)

One who spills the blood of man; by man shall his blood be spilt.

In Hebrew, this is an odd construction:

           Shofeikh dam ha-adam ba-adam damo yishafeikh

It is ambiguous, able to take a comma in two possible places. The first possibility is:

          Shofeikh dam ha-adam, ba-adam damo yishafeikh

Punctuated like this way, the verse yields the translation we have given above.

However, an alternate punctuation results in an altogether different meaning:

            Shofeikh dam ha-adam ba-adam, damo yishafeikh

One who spills the blood of a person who is within a person, his blood shall be spilt.

Regarding this reading, the Talmud states:

They [the sages] said in the name of Rebbi Yishmael:

           “Noahides are liable for killing a fetus. What is the reason for Rebbi Yishmael? For it states in the verse: ‘One who spills the blood of a person who is within a person, his blood shall be spilt.’ Which is a ‘person who is within a person?’ You would answer that this is a fetus.”

The halacha, Torah law, follows the opinion of Rebbi Yishmael and the sages. Maimonides rules as such, writing:

              A gentile who slays any soul, even a fetus in its mother's womb, is executed as penalty for its death.

At What Point Is Abortion Prohibited?

The contemporary political and religious debates on abortion have hinged upon the definition of embryonic/fetal life. This factor is the most important, yet by no means exclusive, consideration shaping the Torah’s approach to the issue.

The Talmud indicates in many places that the embryo does not have the status of a “fetus” or a living being during the first 40 days following its conception. Rather, the embryo is termed mayim bealma, “only fluid.” This is the halacha and reflects a general principle that Torah law is not concerned with that which is microscopic or barely visible. At this stage in its development, the embryo has no halachic, practical, existence. Therefore, should a Jewish woman miscarry at this stage she is not subject to the impurity described in Leviticus 12:2-5. As well, the spiritual impurities (tumah) associated with corpses are not assigned to a miscarried embryo at this stage. This fact allows for the possibility of abortion during the first 40 days.

However, life is not so simple – after all, it among the Holy One’s greatest creations. The Beer Halachos Gadolos, one of the earliest and most important codes of Torah law, rules that a Jew may transgress Shabbat for the sake of saving an unborn life even during its first 40 days.

The Beer Halachos Gadolos obviously considers the embryo “alive enough” to permit a Jew to transgress Shabbat on its behalf. It appears that there are different definitions of life for different purposes of Torah law.

We must ask: Where is the threshold of life for the sake of the prohibition of abortion?  This is a topic of extensive discussion.

Some poskim have taken a very simple approach: if we are permitted to violate Shabbat to save the embryo, it must be prohibited at that point to abort the embryo. The Chavas Yair writes that it doesn’t make sense for Jews to be allowed to violate Shabbat to save a life that they could voluntarily terminate.

However, the reasons for permitting Shabbat violation for the life of the embryo may be more nuanced.

1)  A legal scholar who decides the Halacha (Laws) in cases where previous authorities are inconclusive or no halakhic precedent exists.

5. God: The Transcendent and Immanent

God is easy and simple – utterly uncomplicated in any way. However, our ability to comprehend Him is another matter. Anything we can say about God is more about how we perceive Him than about God himself. This is because God, as we shall see, is entirely transcendental. His essence is utterly beyond all comprehension. In fact, God is indescribable and ultimately unknowable. However, God is also immanent and involved with His creation. From this feature of God we can learn a lot about Him, deriving His desires and values.  This is perhaps the most famous example of God’s essence versus our perception of God: Although God is ultimately simple, we perceive Him as both transcendent and immanent. This idea is at the heart of much Torah theology and a good starting point for our discussion.

The Transcendent Aspect of God

The prayer Shema states: “Hear O Israel, The Lord our God, The Lord is one!” This declaration of God’s unity is not merely about the mathematics of faith. It is more correctly understood as a qualitative rather than quantitative idea. God is not simply “one.” Instead he is “oneness,” the ultimate unity. The problem with ultimate one-ness is that its nature precludes two-ness. For that matter, it precludes three-ness, four-ness, or anything-else-ness at all! If that is the case, then how do we exist? The answer is an important concept called tzimtzum: constriction. Before God could create anything at all, He had to create a space in which creation could take place. In order to do so, He “constricted” his presence, creating a space in which the essence of one-ness was diluted enough to allow creation to endure. This empty space is known as the Chalal ha-Penui (or Chalal,  for short), the vacated space. Between God’s eternal, unified essence and the Chalal a barrier called the Pargod, the veil, or partition.

The Chalal is the canvas upon which all creation took place. Anything that is not- God exists as a created entity within the Chalal. As God Himself said: “I am God; I make all things.”

This distinct separation between God and His creation yields a number of conclusions about God:

As creator of all things, God must therefore be, in essence, entirely separate from all things. There is nothing in the created world that can represent or approximate Him. As it states in Isaiah: “To whom will you then liken God?” Similarly: “There is none like you among the heavenly powers…” Since God must be distinct from the creation, Judaism and Noahism must reject any concept of pantheism.

Since God created all things, his existence can in no way be predicated upon anything in creation. We cannot therefore define God as love, morality, or any kind ethical force.9 God may have those attributes, but they are not God and vice versa.

Since He created all matter, God must not be made of matter. Similarly, since God created space and time, He cannot exist within space and time.

What emerges from the above is a picture of a God who is entirely transcendent and beyond is creation. The danger of such a conception, however, is the erroneous conclusion that God is absent from His creation. To the contrary - God is intimately involved with His creation.

The Immanent Aspect of God

Tzimtzum does not mean that God totally removed Himself from the Chalal. It only means that he restricted his essence to a degree necessary for creation to endure. Yet, God’s presence still permeates and fills the Chalal.

How do we know this?

In Nechemiah 9:6 we are told:

          You have made the heavens… the earth and all that is on it… you give life to them all.

The last clause is in the present tense: God gives life and is continuously giving life. There are many other references to God as the perpetual creator throughout the Tanakh.

Since creation’s continued existence depends constantly upon God’s will, then His will must extend into the Chalal. However, since God is an absolute unity, then  his will and his essence must be one in the same. Therefore, God’s essence must extend into the Chalal.

In this sense, God is immanent: He is continuously and intimately involved with His creation. He directs and sustains it, He hears and answers the prayers of His people; He gives it life and deals with it in kindness and justice. We see this on every page of the Tanakh.

5.1 God: The Transcendent and Immanent II

The Experience of God vs. the Reality of God

We must be reminded, however, that this is a dual perception of God, and not relevant to God himself. It is a product of the finite mind’s striking against an infinite reality. It is not a perception limited only to humans, however. This dual experience of God is alluded to in the song of the angels in Isaiah 6:3. The angels sing:

Holy, Holy, Holy us the God of hosts, the whole world is filled with his glory.

This verse refers to the immanent experience of God. However, the angels also sing

Blessed is God’s glory from His place.

Here the angels refer to God in the transcendental sense, as occupying a place that is His, only His, and that of none other.

Similarly, we say in the Shema: “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one.” Before declaring that God is an unknowable and transcendent unity (“the Lord is One”), we first declare that he is “the Lord our God,” both imminent and ruling.

Furthermore, in every blessing we open with the words: Blessed are you, our God, king of the universe. We declare God as both our God, imminent and close, and as a king who is transcendent and lofty.

The moving prayer Ovinu Malkeinu, recited several times during the year, repeats the refrain Ovinu Malkeinu – Our father, our King!, referring to God as both our imminent father and our transcendent king.

God’s Incorporeality

As mentioned above, since God is the creator of all matter and all space, he cannot be made of matter or subject to space. This fact precludes God having any material manifestation. God himself warns us to never think of him corporeally, saying:

Take heed of yourselves for you saw no matter of form on that day that God spoke to you at Horeb…

Nevertheless, the Torah often speaks of God using anthropomorphism – describing Him as if he had physical qualities. For example, in many places we find reference to the hand of God or the eyes of God. In all such situations the Torah is not telling us that God has a body. Rather, the Torah is borrowing from the language of man in order to express something about His relationship to His creation.

Similarly, when the Torah describes God’s voice, it is referring to a prophetic voice within the mind, but not to an actual divine voice in the sense that we understand voice.

You wonder then why man is described as being created in God’s image if God has no actual “image?”

This is not a description of the physical attributes of man – rather it means that man can affect and interact with the world using many of the same attributes perceived in God.  For example, Man and God both share free will and creative ability.

Other Issues

Any descriptor for God must be qualified and considered carefully.  For example, God is often referred to as “He,” in the masculine. However, this is merely an effect of the Hebrew language which has no neuter grammatical gender.

In the same vein, even terms that seem accurate must be kept in perspective. For example, God is often described as “eternal.” As apropos as this may appear, it is still a limited description. Not being bound by time, the human concept of “eternity” doesn’t even fit properly. “Eternal” is only the closest term we can use to describe God-in- time.

Overview

Although God is utterly beyond any description, comprehension, or corollary in the created universe, he is nevertheless intimately involved in it.

We see His impact upon reality at every turn, which informs us as to his will and attributes.

Nevertheless, these attributes are only products of our perception of God’s action and not intrinsic to God Himself. We can only understand God’s essence by knowing what it is not. In this sense, Torah theology is called “negative theology.”

Summary of the Lesson

• God is beyond any words, description, form, or comprehension.
• Since God created time, space, and matter, He is not subject to any of them.
• Although God is entirely transcendent, he is also completely immanent and involved with the world.
• This dual perception of God is only a perception and is not the reality of God. We are limited in our ability to perceive the infinite.
• God is incorporeal and without form. Anthropomorphism is used by the Torah, however, to convey by way of allegory God’s attributes in this world.
• Any positive description of God is only a description of God’s actions and influence, not of God himself. The essence of God can only be truly communicated by contemplating what God is not.

7.  What is B'nai Noah?

WHAT IS B'NAI NOAH?

Dr. James D. Tabor

Briefly, just what is B'nai Noah?

Most simply put, B'nai Noah, or "children of Noah," is the Talmudic way of referring to all humankind.  According to the Bible we are all descendants of one man, namely Noah, after the Flood, and are thus ``Children of Noah''  (Genesis 10).

You say this concept is in the Talmud.  Is it also in the Bible?

Yes, but not by that name.  Ask yourself, what was the Faith of Enoch, Noah, Shem, Job, Jethro, and all those, who for thousands of years lived before Sinai?  Remember, at that point there were no Jews, there was no people of Israel.  Obviously they had beliefs, standards, and commandments to follow.  They enjoyed a full and rich relationship to the One Creator God.  The Talmud discusses the details of this Faith, found at various points in the book of Genesis.

Fine, we are all "children of Noah," but what is the point of this description?  Is this a religious Faith one can believe and follow?

Not in itself, there is more.  Connected to the idea of being a descendant of Noah are the Noahide Laws which express the basic outlines of a full and dynamic relationship with God.

One of the most accurate descriptions is from the Encyclopedia Britannica under the article "Noahide Laws."  I quote:

". . . a Jewish Talmudic designation for seven biblical laws given to Adam and to Noah before the revelation to Moses on Mt. Sinai and consequently binding on all mankind." (The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropodia, 15th ed, vol 8, p. 737).  

You can see from this definition that a faithful "child of Noah," or a Noahite, would be one who believes and practices the Way summed up in the Seven Noahide Laws, which are the basis of the Noahide Covenant which God made with all humankind.

So, are Jews also considered Noahites?  After all, they too are descendants of Noah?

No, this is a properly a category for Gentiles only.  The Noahide Laws were revealed long before Abraham.  The people of Israel, whom we know today as Jews, are descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob.  They have their own unique and special covenant and mission to the world as expressed in the Torah revealed to Moses at Sinai.  Israel is to be separate from ``the nations'' (Numbers 23:9; Exodus 19:5-6).

What are those seven Noahide Laws?

They are prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, sexual sins, robbery, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal, plus the positive command to establish courts of justice.

This seems almost too simple?  It sounds like basic universal ethics.  Can you actually derive a religious Faith from these?

They are quite basic, but you have to understand that these Seven Laws represent beginning principles, or overall categories and headings, for an entire Faith and Way of life based on the Torah--but as it applies to Gentiles.  For example, the prohibition against idolatry would include the whole understanding of the One God of Israel, His nature, and all that constitutes idolatry, including prohibitions against the Occult, and so forth.  The prohibition against the ``limb of a living animal'' has to do with the principle of the kind treatment of animals.  The prohibition against sexual sins would include the whole Torah understanding of human sexuality.  The Talmudic rabbis expand these in various ways.  Believe it or not, this approach to God can involve one in a lifetime of study and active living, a full "Torah faith," appropriate for Gentiles.  The Torah begins with Genesis.  It is a revelation for all humankind, not just for Jews.  Israel is to function as the priestly people, bringing this Torah faith to all nations.

All but one of these laws is a prohibition.  Why does the Noahide code represent such a negative approach to Faith in God?

This is a misunderstanding of Torah faith in general.  Remember, eight of the Ten Commandments are negative.  For example, to state that one is not to commit adultery is not to be negative, but to stress the central and most damaging threat to human sexual fulfillment.  In that sense it is protective, and actually positive.  Think about the so-called "negative" Golden Rule of Rabbi Hillel-- "Don't do to others, what you would find harmful to yourself."  Is this really negative?  Not if you think about it.  It includes the positive, in that one of the things you would find hateful to yourself would be for someone to neglect positive treatment toward you!  Of the total 613 commandments (mitzvot) of the Torah given to Israel, 365 are negative, while 248 are positive.  But, if you study them you will find that the negative balance and fill out the positive.

You say the Noahide concept involves a whole Way of life.  Can you explain this more?  Following these laws, even if they are expanded into whole categories, does not sound like enough to satisfy the spiritual needs of people?  What about prayers, worship, holydays, customs and traditions?  Do the Noahites have these?

Definitely yes.  Noahites are involved, in co-operation with leading rabbis in Israel and the United States in developing prayers, ceremonies, and rituals which are appropriate to them as Gentiles who have attached themselves to the One God of Israel.  They are not seeking to begin a new religion.  This is forbidden in the Torah.  But neither are they seeking to simply "imitate" the Jewish practices.  This would only confuse matters further.  Most Noahites have turned away from some of the standard holy days of the West, such as Christmas and Easter, with their pagan associations.  There is much in the Sacred Calendar of Judaism that is applicable to all humankind.  The Sabbath day is first mentioned in Genesis 2, where it is sanctified as a day of rest, a memorial of the creation for humankind.  Israel's Sabbath observance, according to later halacha is another matter.  Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, is certainly a day when all human beings, Jew or Gentile, can assemble in a spirit of repentance and reconciliation.  Indeed, all the festivals of Israel can be remembered and honored in ways appropriate for Gentiles, but in solidarity with the Jewish people.  The Noahites, with orthodox rabbinic input, are developing marriage ceremonies, prayers, and holy day rituals which are appropriate for all humankind.

Frankly, what is happening in our day in somewhat new.  We are in a new situation, one we hope, through the grace of HaShem, will lead to Messianic times.  In other words, much of this is right now being worked out in many nations in co-operation between Jewish Torah scholars and committed Gentile Noahites.  This is in the spirit of Isaiah 2 and 11, which tells of the nations coming to Jerusalem to learn the "Way of HaShem,"  leading to Messianic times when the earth is filled with the knowledge of HaShem as the waters cover the sea (see Zech 14:9).  Obviously the whole world is not to literally become Jewish.  But all nations can be taught of God and learn the Way of God for this planet.  The Noahide concept is a beginning of that great goal.

So, does that mean that this Noahide movement is actually rather new?  Is it even, perhaps, what we might call a cult or sect?

No, it is quite old!  After all, recall, this is the Faith of Abel, Enoch, Noah, Job, and even Abraham (before his circumcision).  You could not find a religious Faith on this planet with older roots than the Noahide one!  You would hardly call the religion of these Patriarchs a ``cult.''  It is the very foundation of Western ethical and moral values.

Also, from an historical point of view, the early Gentile participants in the movement that arose around Jesus the Nazarene were actually participating in a version of the B'nai Noah concept.  In other words, early Gentile ``Christianity,'' might be more accurately classified as a messianic B'nai Noah movement, despite the later heretical developments within Christianity which made Jesus a second deity. B'nai Noah when properly understood instructs Gentiles to turn directly to the One God as He is revealed in the pages of the Scriptures.  This is clearly reflected in Acts 15 and Paul's instructions to his Gentile converts in letters like 1 Corinthians (see chapters 5-10) and 1 Thessalonians.  He instructs the Gentile believers in Jesus as Messiah in the seven Noahide Laws.  These were made binding on the Gentile converts by none other than Jacob (James), brother of Jesus, and leader of the Nazarene Sect.  They were among the "Godfearers" who attended Jewish synagogues to learn Torah as it applied to them.  There was nothing for the first 50 years of the movement that resembled what we call "Christianity," as a separate Hellenistic religion distinct from Judaism.  The movement was thoroughly Jewish, but with Gentiles invited to participate on the basis of the Noahide concept without conversion to Judaism.

What is the attitude then, of the current B'nai Noah movement toward Christianity?

The B'nai Noah movement is definitely not Christian.  It is larger than all world religions.  Remember, it is the Faith for all "children of Noah," that is, all humankind.  We would want to see it spread among Moslems, Buddhists, Hindus, and so forth, as well as among Christians.  One basic call is to turn from "idols."  Most world religions are given over to idolatry of various forms.  Noahites, in the light of the revelation of the Torah, encourage all who will hear to forsake these practices.

For example, no faithful Noahite would worship and equate Jesus with HaShem, the One God of Israel; reject the Torah as God's eternal revelation; or scorn the people of Israel.  Within our movement we do have those of various backgrounds and beliefs.  We have various levels.  What we have in common is our love of God, Torah, and Israel.  And as we study together we find that we are being drawn ever closer. Everyone is accepted in light of their desire to learn. True perfection is open to all humanity. As the Scriptures declare, "Abraham listened to my voice and he kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes and my laws" (Genesis 26:5). This refers to Abraham's belief in the one God, his willingness to teach others about God, to disseminate knowledge about how to worship Him, to disprove idolatry, also to go in the ways of God, to be kind, compassionate, to do justice and righteousness and to cause others to do so and to keep the seven laws of Noah. Perfection is the aim of all the laws.

This all sounds interesting, but still a little obscure.  Why have I never heard of this Noahide concept if it is so important?

You will be surprised to learn that on March 20, 1990 President George Bush signed into law an historic Joint Resolution of both Houses of Congress recognizing the Seven Noahide Laws as the "bedrock of society from the dawn of civilization" and urged our country to "return the world to the moral and ethical values contained in the Seven Noahide Laws" (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-4).  So, you see, these things are not being done in a corner.

Where can I go to get more information about this movement?

For research the most basic book is Aaron Lichtenstein, The Seven Laws of Noah. 

You can also read about the movement in the recent press: "Tennessee Baptists Turn to Judaism for New Inspiration",: The Wall Street Journal, March 20, 1991, page 1; "The 7 Noahide Laws: What Every Gentiles Should Know," Parts I & II, The Jewish Press, January 18 & 25 editions, 1991, pp. 8C, 31; "Is Our B'nai Noah Movement Christian," Parts I,II,III, The Jewish Press, May 9, 16, 23, editions, 1991, pp. 8D, 12, 8B, "Welcoming the God-fearer--The Noahide Alternative," Moment, August, 1991.

 6. What is a Ger, Ger Toshav and Ger Tzedek

There have been a number of articles and lectures through ignorance of the term or to deceive Noahides with the intent to expand the definition of Ger. However, the conclusions drawn by these authors are without merit and have been strongly renounced by the Rabbinic Community based upon the preceding 2000 years of Torah scholarship.  These facts cannot be denied.

Rabbi Avraham Chaim Bloomenstiel.

Ger Toshav-A Non-Jew who resides in the land of Israel

The term ger toshav has created special confusion for modern Noahides and will be discussed at length in a future lesson.

The ger toshav is referred to in many places in the Torah:

Exodus 12:43-45 – This is the decree of the Passover offering… a resident [Toshav] and a hired laborer may not eat of it.

Lev. 25:6 – The land’s yield of the sabbatical year shall be yours to eat, yours… and the residents’ [Toshav] who sojourns [Ger] among you.

Lev. 25:35 – …you shall strengthen him, the convert or the resident [Toshav].

Lev. 25:40 – Like a laborer or a resident [Toshav] he shall be with you, until the jubilee year he shall work with you.

Lev. 25:45 - …also, from among the children of the residents [Toshav] who dwell [Ger] with you…

Lev. 25:47 – If the means of a sojourner [Ger] who resides [Toshav] among you…

Num. 35:15 – For the children of Israel, the convert, and the resident [Toshav] among them…

The term ger, from the Hebrew root gar, meaning “to sojourn,” refers to an alien, a stranger, or an immigrant. Toshav means “reside.” A ger toshav is, therefore, a resident alien: a non-Jew who resides in the land of Israel among the Jewish people. However, the Torah tells us:

They [idolaters] shall not dwell in your land lest they cause you to sin against Me and worship their gods.⁶

We see that a ger toshav must give up his idolatrous beliefs and practices in order to live in Israel.

How is this accomplished practically? How far must a non-Jew go in disavowing idolatry so that he may reside in Israel? The Talmud⁷ explains that the prospective ger toshav must come before a Beis Din (Jewish religious court) and accept upon himself to faithfully observe the seven Noahide laws.

However, the Talmud⁸ tells us that there is no status of ger toshav in our days.

Nevertheless, some rabbis have instructed Noahides to accept the status of ger toshav even today. Others have not sought to confer ger toshav status, but have required potential Noahides to nevertheless accept their commandments before a Beis Din (Jewish Rabbinical court). Both of these are unnecessary as we will see in future lessons.

The halakhah (decisive religious law) is that there is no need or benefit for one to accept the Seven Mitzvos before a Beis Din. Such an acceptance before a Beis Din will have no effect whatsoever on the Ben Noach’s religious status, ability to fulfill the mitzvos, or the merit he receives for fulfilling the mitzvos.

Ger Tzedek – A Righteous Convert

The word Ger has many meanings. The verb root from which it derives implies sojourning. However, in its noun form it means a stranger or outsider. When used alone, Ger almost always means a convert. When Ger is in any way used together with the word Toshav, it means a Ger Toshav, something entirely different than a convert. The Talmud devotes extensive analysis to determining correct interpretations of the Torah’s use of the term Ger. For clarity, the Talmud qualifies its own use of Ger with the term Tzedek, meaning a righteous convert. The term Ger Tzedek, as used in the Talmud and codes of Jewish law, means exclusively a full convert to Judaism.

If a ger tzedek is a full convert to Judaism, then why does the Talmud call them a ger tzedek and not simply a “Jew?” The reason is that a convert is not 100% identical to a born Jew. For example, a female convert may not marry a Kohen (descendant of Aharon). A convert may also not serve in a position of communal authority (such as being a synagogue Rabbi) nor sit on a beis din (Rabbinic tribunal). For the purposes of discussing the laws involved, the Talmud must have some way to distinguish a convert from a born Jew. We should note also, that there is no other term in Hebrew for convert – only ger tzedek.

6 Exodus 23:33.

7 Avodah Zarah 64b.

8 Arakhin 29a

8. The Soul

The Material Body & the Immaterial Soul

God formed man out of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils a breath of life. Man then became a living being.

This famous verse describes man as a being created of two natures: the physical (the dust of the ground) and the spiritual (the soul – the breath of life). A subtle nuance of this verse is that man was animated with God’s breath – an exhalation from the innermost being of God. This is in contrast to the rest of creation, which was created by G-d’s speech – with sound waves created by God – which is a lower level of divine intimacy, one that is distanced from God’s essence.

Of course, God does not actually have breath. This is a merely a descriptive metaphor enabling us to discuss the concepts involved. It is an extremely apt one, however, and is elaborated upon greatly by our Sages.

The Glassblower

The parable used by many sages to describe the nature of the soul is that of a glassblower creating a vessel. The glassblower dips one end of his tube into molten glass and places the other end against his lips. The breath originates at the lips, flows down the tube, and comes to rest in the molten glass below, forming it and shaping it into its final form as the glass blower rotates and turns the whole apparatus. Now, where is the soul in this analogy? Is it upon the lips of the glass blower, in the tube, or in the burgeoning glass bulb at the end? The answer is all three.

The Three Expressions of the Soul

The soul is constantly being “blown” into the being by God. As such, the soul exists in a constant dynamic relationship with its creator. This ongoing emanation of the soul means that the soul constantly exists in three expressions. Many writers have described these three expressions as levels, or components of the soul. However, such descriptions are misleading. I prefer to call it three “expressions” of the soul:

Neshamah, meaning “soul,” and derived from the word Neshima, meaning “breath.” In our parable, this is the exit of the breath from the lips of the divine glassblower. This is the essence of the soul and its highest and most intimate connection to God.

Ruach, meaning “spirit,” and derived from the word for wind. This is the moving, blowing of the soul into the world, representing the raging conduit and connection between man’s soul and God.

Nefesh, often translated as “soul,” yet better translated as “life-force,” is from the word Nafash, meaning “to rest.” It alludes to the divine breath coming to rest in the vessel of the body of man.

These three expressions exist simultaneously and in constant interaction with each other. While the Neshama is the closest to God and the place at which the soul’s truest essence resides, it is bound to the Nefesh, the component that enlivens the body and interacts with the rest of creation, via Ruach, the conduit of divine breath.

These soul-elements form a chain binding man’s soul to G-d:

The Nefesh is bound to the Ruach, the Ruach is bound to the Neshama, and the Neshama to the Holy One, Blessed is He.

The Five Expressions of the Soul

The Midrash, however, adds two more levels to the soul:

Chayah, “living essence,” and,

Yechidah, “unique essence.”

Our scholars understand these as two higher, almost completely imperceptible levels of the soul. They are, like God Himself, both immanent and transcendent in relationship to the lower levels of the soul.

If the Neshama is the breath of God, the glassblower, then Chayah is the body of the glassblower, the vehicle which gives motion to and exhales the divine breath. Note, though, that the breath exhaled by the glassblower is not intrinsic to His being.

Therefore,

The lower levels of the soul originate from His “body,” so to speak, yet are not “of” his body; they are a separate, created entity independent of, yet intimately originating from, the creator.

Yechidah, however, is something totally transcendent. It represents the  true, inexpressible aspect of the creator. It is the innermost part of the creator which desires to create and knows its own purposes. In our parable, Yechidah is the soul of the glassblower, the innermost essence of God.

Man can only access the three lower levels of the soul: Neshama, Ruach, and Nefesh. The upper two levels belong to God Himself.

The Expressions of the Soul in This World

Each expression of the soul exerts its own influence over particular areas of human activity.

Nefesh, the lowest level, governs man’s physical interaction with the world. It transfers will into the animation of the body. It also binds the rest of the soul to the physical matter of the body.

Ruach,  the  motion  of  the  divine  spirit,   is  the  source   of  the  power  of  speech. It is responsible for the articulation and organization of inspiration into thought. This power, combined with Ruach’s duty as the conduit between the lower and higher expressions of the soul, also makes it the conduit for divine inspiration. Divine inspiration, in Hebrew, is called Ruach ha-kodesh, or holy Ruach. Ruach is also the realm of the emotions.

Neshama influences the higher realm of human faculties such as thought, intellect, and the spiritual sensibilities.

8.1 The Soul II

The Lower Soul

We tend to think of the soul as a purely spiritual entity, which it is. However, what about animals? Do they have souls?  The answer is “yes.”  However, their souls are not spiritual. Instead, they are the most ethereal of physical entities.

What is more, all living beings possess this nefes ha-behamis – this “animal soul.” This includes man as well. This animal soul is the most basic force needed to maintain life. It is the animating force that governs the “natural laws” of physiology and most basic needs for survival.

This soul is what the Torah refers to when it states:

The soul of the flesh that is in the blood.

This animal soul is essential for guaranteeing the survival of the organism.  Without it, the spiritual soul would never eat, engage in reproduction, or do anything other than pray and pursue connection to God.  This physical soul is what is also known as the yetzer hora, the evil desire.

The Immortality of the Soul

All souls that will ever exist were created at the beginning of time. Since then they have been kept in a celestial repository until God deems them to be born.  Upon death, the soul ascends to a new place, the olam ha-neshamos, where it resides until the coming of the messiah. However, it doesn’t always work out this way.

Gilgul HaNeshomos – Reincarnation

Reincarnation, though subject to some debate in the past, is an accepted part of Torah belief. However, reincarnation is a loaded term with lots of non-Torah connotations. We must, therefore, be cautious not to assume anything about the Torah’s doctrine lest we color our understanding with the convoluted perversions of pop-culture.

In the Torah’s view, reincarnation is neither an automatic nor a common event. It is also neither a punishment nor a reward. Instead, reincarnation is an act of divine compassion. God gives many neshamos, souls, a “second chance” to fulfill mitzvos that they may have missed in a previous life. This is sometimes needed to allow particular souls to accomplish unique tikkunim, repairs to the world, for which those souls are uniquely suited.

However, neshamos, souls, are not always reincarnated in whole or in the same form held in their previous life. Sometimes only some of the components of the soul (Nefesh, Ruach, or Neshamah) are reincarnated, carved away from their fellows. The reincarnated souls, or parts of souls, may also not come back in human form.

Summary of This Lesson

• Man was created with a physical being and a spiritual soul. The imbuing of the spiritual soul was a more intimate act of creation than the creation of the physical body. The body was created by speech, the soul by breath.
• The soul is a single entity which emanates into the world, radiating as three distinct expressions. These expressions are a chain which binds the soul in this world to its origin.
• Each expression influences particular human qualities.
• There are higher expressions of the soul, but these are rooted in the being of God Himself and essentially unknowable to us.
• Man, as all living creatures also has a natural, animal soul, which animates the basic, rote physiological processes and desires needed for survival. This soul is the root of the yetzer hora, the evil desire.
• The soul is immortal. All souls were created at the beginning of creation and set aside by God until their time to be born. When a person dies, their soul is transferred to another repository to await the World to Come.
• Some souls or portions of souls are reincarnated as an act of divine compassion. They are not always reincarnated in human form, however.

For a deeper and more comprehensive study we encourage you to take the 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course' taught by the Talmudic University of Florida or the 'Home/Study course', 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course'.

9. The After Life, Messiah and Redemption

Judaism and Noahism believe in the immortality of the soul. Naturally, this entails belief in an afterlife. Yet, there is a very sharp distinction between the western, Christianized view of the afterlife and the Torah’s view.

Keeping Perspective

Compared to other belief systems, Judaism and Noahism focus very little on the afterlife. The afterlife is a particular pre-occupation of Christianity and Islam and an obsession that establishes the afterlife as the ultimate goal of all worldly activity. However, Torah references to the afterlife are almost non-existent. In fact, discussion of the afterlife is almost taboo and distasteful in many circles.

Many authors note this ongoing de-emphasis of the afterlife in Torah thought, connecting it to the exodus from Egypt. Egypt was a society obsessed with the afterworld to the point of corruption. Their afterlife was more real, immediate, and relevant than anything of this world.

Part of God’s plan in taking the Jews out of Egypt was to cleanse them of this undue focus and set their priorities straight. God wants us to fulfill His will in this world – that is the purpose of creation. Therefore, the Torah is conspicuously devoid of any mention of the afterlife. The little we know about the afterlife and the World-to-Come is from scant references in the prophets, writings, and Oral Torah.

What is more, the rabbinic world has followed this trend, placing all of its emphasis on defining the fulfillment of God’s will in this world. The study of the afterlife has remained a “fuzzy” topic for scholars.

While we know the general principles and order of things, the specific details are unclear. We must recall that no one has ever seen the afterlife. What we know about it we believe to be true with absolute faith. However, we must also have the humility to admit that which we do not know.

Taking this fact into account, scholars have realized that attempting to pin down a precise vision of the afterlife is not only impossible, but ultimately not a good a use of their time.

“Heaven” and “Hell?”

Judaism and Noahism do not believe in heaven and hell. The idea of eternal damnation and suffering without relief just doesn’t work. Consider that we believe God punishes commensurate with deeds. Eternal punishment isn’t commensurate with anyone’s deeds because no one, now, never, or ever, is infinitely evil or has committed an infinite number of evil deeds.

Another problem with hell is that God’s purpose for creating the world was the bestowal of good. Let’s imagine that a theoretically infinitely-evil person exists  and does get sent to hell for all eternity. Now, if God’s purpose is good, yet this person will receive none if it ever again, then why does this evil person continue to exist at all? Is it that God is sadistic and wants to make our evil person suffer forever? It is possible to argue that eternal suffering exists as a deterrent from transgression. However, this is not a compelling argument; there are better ways to discourage sin.

The concept of Heaven is equally perplexing. A place where everyone gets the same reward regardless of their deeds?

Also, where do heaven and hell leave the early realm? In this paradigm of the afterlife, this world is has little purpose; the emphasis is entirely on the future life.

Christianity, well aware of these problems, has wrestled with them for centuries. Rather than coming to compelling consensus, their doctrine has become highly fragmented. This fracturing of belief is the source of many doctrinal disputes and widely differing eschatologies.

Judaism and Noahism, on the other hand don’t suffer from this doctrinal schizophrenia because we have a very different vision of the afterlife.

Gan Eden

The following description of the afterlife and future worlds are summarized from Gesher HaChayim, The Bridge of Life, by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Tukachinsky, Derech HaShem, The Way of God, by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, and An Essay on Fundamentals, also by Rabbi Luzzatto. This presentation is a general overview of the beliefs, yet is nothing here is an iron-clad fundamental-of-the-faith.

God prepared a number of places for the soul. In this physical world at this time, the place of the soul is the body. However, when the body is no longer available, God prepared another repository: Gan Eden, the Garden of Eden. The Garden has an upper garden and a lower garden.

The Lower Garden and The Upper Garden

While both gardens are entirely spiritual, the lower one is a “shadow,” a spiritual simulacrum of the physical world. In this lower realm the souls maintain an image of their physical form. Similarly, the delights of this lower realm are limited, experienced much as greatest pleasures of the physical world.

The upper garden, however, is a place where souls exist in their abstract, truest essence; they do not maintain the “shadow” of their physical form. Likewise, the delights of  this upper garden are abstract and uniquely spiritual, devoid of corollary in the physical world.

The Gardens are not static. They experiences “seasons” and a spiritual “time” all of its own. Its delights, the fruits of the garden, change regularly with the seasons.

Shoel / Chibbut HaKever

However, the ability to enter these spiritual gardens necessitates the soul’s detachment from the physical realm. The committing of transgressions has the effect of binding and entangling the soul with the physical world. In order for the soul to ascend, it must be carefully dis-entangled from olam ha-zeh, material existence.

Recall from our previous lesson on reward and punishment that punishment is not a “punishment for” as much as a “natural consequence of” sin.

We can now understand what this means. The “punishment” of sin is the disentanglement of the soul from the body. By nature, this is an unpleasant process, like disentangling a cotton ball from a thorn bush. The greater the transgressions, the more entangled the soul the longer and more unpleasant the experience.

This process begins with burial and the process of decomposition. Upon placement of the body in the grave (shoel), the “physical trap” of the soul returns to its source, losing its form and illusory autonomy. For approximately 12 months the soul hovers above the grave “grieving” and “mourning” for the loss of the body. This is the implication of the verses:

Burial and Decomposition

His soul mourns for him, and, His flesh grieves for him.

This process, called chibbut ha-kever, the atonement/purification of the grave, is of tremendous anguish to the soul.

Gehinnom

Once the soul has completed this chibbut kever, purification of the grave, it is then judged. At this point, the soul stands before the ultimate truth and must confront all of its deeds. This part of the afterlife is known as Gehinnom.

Since this is a purely spiritual process, it cannot be adequately described in words. Nevertheless, the Talmud, Midrash, and other sources attempt to convey the experience of the soul using graphic, often terrifying parables. For example, the description of Gehenom as a place of fire refers to the shame the soul experience as it stands before the ultimate truth.

The process of Gehenom is by not a permanent one; it lasts, at most, for only 12 months. After this point, the soul may ascend to the gardens.

Olam HaBa

Gan Eden, the Garden, Gehinnom – all of these places are temporary. The permanent place of man’s reward is the World to Come, Olam HaBa. This future era, ushered in by the coming of the Messiah and resurrection of the dead (topics of future lessons), is one of the most mysterious and least-understood of God’s creations.

Although the World to Come is a creation of G-d, no two souls experience it the same way. Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, in his Nefesh HaChayim describes the unique experience of the world to come as follows:

A person’s own deeds constitute his reward in the World to Come. Once the soul has departed the body, it arises to take pleasure and satisfaction in the power and light of the holy worlds that have been created and multiplied by his good deeds. This is what the Sages meant when they said: “All of Israel have a portion to the World to Come,” and not in the World-to-Come. In implies that the World to Come is prepared and awaiting a person from the time of Creation, as if it was something existing on its own and of which man may receive as a reward. In truth, the World to Come is built of the expansion and multiplication of ones deeds into a place for himself… so too with the punishment of Gehenom, the sin itself is his punishment.

The structure and space of the world to come is directly related to the mitzvos of an individual. Within that space, the eternal reward of his mitzvos is received. The amount of reward, however, is directly tied to the merit one accumulated in this world.

There is a lack of clarity and agreement as to whether the World to Come is physical or entirely spiritual. There is also confusion as to the various roles within that world, the nature of mitzvos, and the purpose of worship, holidays, and the third temple.

In truth, though, these details are not entirely for us to know, but to find out eventually.

For those wanting to read more, see the Bridge of Life by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Tukachinsky and the Way of God by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto.  

Summary of the Lesson

• Upon death and burial, the process of decay begins. This atonement for the physical flesh via the grave is called shoel, literally, the grave.
• As the soul decomposes, the soul undergoes a process of disentanglement from the body. This is known as chibbut ha-kever, the atonement/purification of the grave.
• Following chibbut ha-kever, the soul then undergoes the first of a series of judgments. This is called Gehenom
• Gehinnom is the laying bare of one’s sins in the light of complete truth. The many metaphors for Gehinnom found in the sources speak primarily to the emotional experience of Gehinnom.
• The entire process of Shoel, chibbut ha-kever, and Gehinnom, takes 12 months at most.
• Once the soul has been judged and is freed from its attachments to the physical, it ascends to Gan Eden, the Garden of Eden.
• The Garden contains upper and lower gardens for different souls of different natures.
• The Gardens experience seasons, fruits, and all the other varieties to be expected in a physical garden. Of course, these are all allegories for a non- physical place.
• The soul awaits in the Gardens until the coming of the messiah. At this time the souls are reborn, experiencing resurrection.
• The resurrection and rebirth is into a new world called Olam Haba – the world to Come.
• The World to Come is a not well understood; it is also experienced differently by each soul commensurate with the mitzvos of that soul during its first lifetime.

10. Dreams

A dream (chalom) is a night vision, an apparition, a revelation or a vision that a person occasionally sees in his sleep.

Sometimes, the term "dream" is also used to describe a phenomenon without permanence, something fleeting which rapidly evaporates. "Dream " also refers to a strong desire which is unfulfilled or to something which is farfetched and unlikely.

A dream (chalom) is a night vision, an apparition, a revelation or a vision that a person occasionally sees in his sleep.

Sometimes, the term "dream" is also used to describe a phenomenon without permanence, something fleeting which rapidly evaporates. "Dream " also refers to a strong desire which is unfulfilled or to something which is farfetched and unlikely.

The study of dreams is an ancient one. People since antiquity have been agitated and fascinated by dreams and have made many attempts to explain the nature of dreams, their purpose and their interpretation.

In spite of thousands of years of effort and study of  the nature and interpretation  of  dreams,  science  has  advanced very little in this  area.  The  modern  era  of  the  study  of dreams begins with the publication of Sigmund Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams in 1900. Freud claimed that all details of a dream (even the  most  ridiculous}  have  significance.  In his view, various feelings and sensations which one experiences in a dream are those pushed out of consciousness because of various social prohibitions. Further, contents of dreams satisfy hidden desires. There are struggles in man's nature between intellect and impulse. During waking hours, logical tendencies predominate. During a dream, instinctive desires and experiences occur which are important to satisfy a person's needs. The approach of Freud is based more on theories and hypotheses than on scientific facts. His views were strongly opposed by many people even during his lifetime and more so nowadays in view of new scientific knowledge about the structure of dreams - knowledge which was not known to Freud .

In the first half of the present century, the numerous studies of dreams were based on psychological and/or psychiatric considerations. Dreams form the basis of names denote similar things with variations in degree. See Mishneh Torah , Yesodei Hatorah 7:2-3. Other scholars state that there is a fundamental difference between a dream and prophecy and these names are not all the same.

psychoanalytical theory. Even nowadays, some  psychiatrists  and psychologists believe that dreams have important significance to the dreamer. Various psychiatric theories are based on the diagnosis and treatment of the  contents of dreams.

In 1953, the various stages of sleep which form the physiological basis of sleep were first identified. In  that year, the stage of sleep of rapid eye movements (REM) was described as the most important stage of dreams. The connection  between a large number of  dreams and  the REM stage  of  sleep  was established in 1957. On the other hand, some people lack this stage of sleep, lack any known dreams during sleep, yet have no functional problems. 12 During the past 50 years, dreams have been intensively studied by physiologists and others specializing in sleep disorders. There are still no clear scientific facts which prove that dreams are psychological, physiological, or a combination of both. Therefore, we still do not have a dear understanding of the nature and function of dreams nor of their genesis.

The importance and function of dreams has not yet been scientifically clarified. According to the theory put forth by Freud, the function of dreams is to release the contents of our subconscious and to transfer these contents to our consciousness. Primarily these contents are sexual in nature. Other psychoanalysts, such as Adler and Jung, theorize that dreams are important to express other contents such as aggressive tendencies or various personal desires. Other  psychiatrists state that the main purpose of dreams is to forget some learned material, thereby producing "cleanliness of the head" and to liberate brain energy to gather other and varied  material. Yet other psychiatrists believe that the purpose of  dreams is  to transfer n1emory, temporarily stored in subcortical areas, to cortical areas in the brain where memory is stored for prolonged periods of time. Finally, some psychiatrists suggest a combination of the two theories, namely the transfer of memory from subcortical to cortical areas, and the simultaneous erasure of memory which was temporarily stored in those subcortical areas, for an intermediate period of time, thereby allowing a fresh collection of memories and experiences to be collected and stored. 

Some psychiatrists believe that the storage of memory in our brain is effectuated through parables. When awake, we immediately try to interpret them. During sleep, the dream is an expression of the amorphous from the memory. This matter resembles vision and learning which enter the brain and are stored as electrical impulses. Only when our bra.in is awake does it translate the impulses into pictures and sounds.

Dreams in the Bible and the Talmud

The phenomenon of dreaming seems to be a wuversal human experience. A number of dreams  are  portrayed in  the  Bible: the dream  of Abimelech, the  dreams  of  Jacob, of  Laban the Aramean, the dreams of Joseph, and of the butler and the baker,0 the dreams of Pharaoh, of the two Midianites about Gideon, of Solomon, of Nebuchadnezzar, and the dream of Daniel.

The interpretations of all these dreams are described in the Bible except for the first dream of Jacob, about the ladder whose top reached up to heaven.

Dreams and dreaming are often discussed in the Talmud, but their ultimate significance is debatable. "Dreams are hidden and concealed things, and their purpose is concealed from human  beings."  "In  the  matter  of  dream  interpretation  there are nostrums or concealed things. Their purpose has not been revealed to us." Thus, in the Torah and the Talmud we find statements and opinions which indicate that dreams have no significance, are not true, are not fulfilled, and only represent deceptions of one's imagination for a variety of  reasons. On the other hand, we also find statements which indicate that dreams are significant in telling us about the future and in establishing Jewish law or ethical conduct. Some dreams are completely true and correct, while others are at least partially correct. There are also numerous conflicting opinions in Jewish writings about the origins and purposes of dreams, as discussed below.

Confirmed dreams which have significance and  which can be used to determine a halacha or a custom are called "true dreams." By contrast, dreams which are insignificant  or meaningless are called false dreams or vain dreams.

Our rabbis apparently considered that true dreams can be significant and meaningful. Examples include the dreams cited in Scriptures, which have true prophetic meaning, and the dreams cited in the Talmud whose forecasts become established according to the contents of the dreams. The laws about voiding a bad dream, fasting for bad dreams, and excommunication testify  to the  various meanings our rabbis attributed to dreams. Other mentions of dreams as authentic harbingers of some kind of divine message include "If there be a  prophet  among  you...I  will  speak  to  him  in  a  dream;" "And when Saul inquired the Lord...  neither  by dreams..."; "a dream is one sixtieth part of prophecy;" "the Lord said:

Although I hide My face from them, I shall speak to them in a dream;" "unripe prophecy is a dream." "Three types of dreams are fulfilled:  an early morning dream, a dream which a friend has about one, and a dream which is interpreted in the midst of a dream. Some also add, a dream which is repeated ... "Every dream just before morning is fulfilled immediately.'" "Nowadays, there is no prophecy nor voice from l1eaven, but people still have dreams.''

Some rabbinic dicta suggest that a dream should not be understood as totally meaningful and true.  However, it may be partially meaningful, as stated in the Talmud:  "Just as wheat cannot be without straw, so there cannot be a dream without some nonsense.', Kabbalists hold that although part of a dream is fulfilled, the whole of it is not fulfilled.  And while not all of a good dream is fulfilled, neither is all of a bad dream fulfilled. Some dreams are totally true and some contain both truth and falseness .

These elusive, sometimes contradictory, opinions regarding the validity of a dream sequence and its possible relevance reflect the wide range of rabbinic positions regarding the importance one ought to ascribe to a dream.

Clearly, there is a difference between the dreams of true prophets, which are meaningful and represent an expression of prophecy, and the usual dreams of ordinary people.  The latter dreams are the ones whose content, function, and significance are discussed in the Talmud and by the rabbis, to probe to what extent they may be meaningful.

Rabbinic decisors employ a variety of approaches to reconcile the apparent contradictions in talmudic teachings about dream interpretation and to explain the origins of dreams and their significance. Some rabbis write that there is an essential identity between a dream and prophecy - the difference between them is only quantitative.

A dream originates in the imaginative faculty of the soul. What a person perceives in a dream are concepts which he already had and whose impressions remain engraved in his imagination together with all his powers of imagination. When any idea becomes nullified, only those impressions remain. According to this view, there are various levels of prophetic experience; a prophet's dreams represent certain stages of prophecy. The prophetic dream levels are a dream in which the prophet sees an allegory, a dream in which the prophet hears things, a dream in which the prophet is addressed by an angel, a dream in which it appears to the prophet as if G-d spoke to him. Consequently, some rabbis describe true dreams as a "minor prophecy.”

By contrast, other rabbis believe that there is a substantive difference between a dream and prophecy and that the similarity between them is only external. For a dream is derived from the individual human imaginative faculty according to his own expressed characteristics and the constitution of his body, whereas prophecy comes from divine revelation from above.

Whether the difference between prophecy and a dream is qualitative or quantitative, apparently most rabbinic decisors and commentators believe that the majority of dreams originate from an imaginative faculty which is not healthy, or from a physical reason such as the digestion of food which produces gases in the brain, or from weakness of the body constitution which allows alterations in the body humors, or from provincial expressions and thoughts during the course of the day. A dream is the revelation of disorganized thoughts that are suppressed during waking hours and released during sleep. Such dreams are vain, have no meaning, and have no effect one way or the other. One should pay no attention to them.  Even if something in the dream is true, it is a very small part of the dream. Prophecy, however, is completely true, without any falseness at all.

10.1 Dreams II

The rabbis also maintain that although the imaginative faculty is in part  correct, much  worthless  material is contained therein, and consequently most dreams are useless things. Even "true dreams," which derive from prophecy and intellect, also contain useless things. Some rabbis write that a dream can only contain a true or prophetic matter if it pertains to the future; if it relates to the past, however, it is considered meaningless. Similarly, some rabbis write that whether a person dreams about himself or another person dreams about him, the contents of dreams have no effect one way or another. This is a general rule for all dreams.

There is, however, a very small minority of dreams which are true and correct and which have no relationship to physical causes but occur due to strength of the soul. If the imaginative faculty in a person is very strong and healthy, dreams can be a teaching from heaven, "a small prophecy,""one sixtieth part" of prophecy. Despite the ephemeral nature of the dream experience, Jewish thinking is not quite ready to discount these experiences altogether. Thus, halacha (law) and hashkafa (philosophy) do address the issue.

Certain general principles apply to the validity of dreams from a halachic viewpoint. Most dreams are considered of questionable validity and therefore, in monetary matters, the doubt is resolved leniently - money is not taken from one person and given to another merely on the basis of a dream, but only upon clear and convincing evidence. However, in matters of what is permitted or forbidden, the doubt as to the dream's importance is resolved stringently, and one must be concerned about the contents of the dream. Some rabbis, however, rule that even in such matters one need not be concerned with a dream because dreams have no effect one way or another.

In general, Jewish law follows the rule of the majority and considers most dreams as meaningless. However, in matters of danger to life, the law does not follow the rule of the majority. There is concern even for a minority circumstance. Therefore, a dream whose  contents deal with danger to Life is of concern. In matters which are not contrary to Jewish law, one should be concerned about the contents of a dream. For example, if one dreams that raging troubles will occur to the general populace, one should pay attention thereto, fast, and do penitence. However, if the dream indicates that one should nullify biblical or even rabbinic commandments, one is not allowed to heed the dream.

In halachic literature, there is a difference of opinion among rabbinic decisors whether or not a scholar is allowed to inquire in a dream about a halachic decision, and whether, if he saw the answer to a halachic question in a dream, he should pay attention to it. In biblical times dreams were frequently consulted, and some rabbis note that talmudic sages at times inquired of dreams. A number of early rabbinic decisors affirm that in dreams they saw answers to and interpretations of halachic questions. Rabbi Yaakov from Marvish, one of the Tosafists, inquired in dreams about legal questions and disseminated the questions and divine answers in his book.

By contrast, some rabbis write that a person should refrain from asking in a dream which woman to marry and in which business undertaking he might succeed. Although some later rabbinic decisors accept as authoritative the content of dreams which revealed Jewish Jaw to them, most rabbis reject his view. Dreams should have no effect one way or anotl1er, for the Torah is "not in the heavens," and a  dream is "fleeting and without substance."

However, books and treatises have been written attempting to interpret various dreams, according to the view that dreams do have significance and one should pay attention to their contents.

Specific Laws

Since by their very nature it is very difficult to determine whether a person's dreams are nonsense or should be taken seriously, Jewish law and literature reflect a cautious approach, based on the possibility that the dream might indeed carry a portent.

"Neutralizing" a Bad Dream

On going to bed one recites the prayer "Who causes the bands of sleep to fall upon my eyes" (hamapil), part of which includes "and let not evil dreams and evil thoughts disturb me."

The way to "neutralize" a bad dream ,is  as  follows: if  one has a dream which makes one sad, even if it  contains nothing bad but only makes him sad, he should have a "good  turn" given to it in the  presence of  three  people.  Let him go to three of his friends and say to them, "I have seen a good dream". And they should say to  him,  "Good  it  is  and good may it be. May the Holy One, blessed be He, turn it to good. Seven times may it be decreed from heaven that it should be good and may it be good." They should then say  three verses in which G-d promises to tum bad to good, three  verses with the word redemption and three verses with the word place. Some sources interpret the "seven times may it be decreed"... to be part of the text of the incantation.  In this view, the entire incantation is recited three times. Other rabbis state that this sentence is not part of the text of the incantation. Rather, the incantation should be recited seven times and one should respond "Amen" after it seven times.

During the "neutralization" one should remember the dream in one's mind. One rabbi states that the dreamer should describe his dream to the three people, who should then "interpret" it for good. The time to perform the neutralization ritual, according to some rabbis, is at the end of the day after one leaves the synagogue; other rabbis suggest that morning is the proper ti me.

In general, the rabbis advise people not to pay attention to dreams because most are meaningless. However, if he is sad and anxious about a dream, he should perform the neutralization ritual.

The Talmud advises that if  a  person  had  a  dream  but does not remember what he saw, (whether he cannot remember whether it was good or bad or whether he entirely forgot the dream), let him stand before the  Kohanim when they raise their hands to offer the priestly benediction and offer a prayer that the dream have a good outcome.

In Israel, where the Kolumim bless the people daily, one does not recite this praier every day but only if he bad a dream the night before. In countries where the priests offer the priestly benediction only on Jewish Holidays, it is customary for the entire congregation to recite this prayer during the priestly benediction - even the people who did not dream.

Fasting on Account of a Bad Dream

Halachic literature indicates that a person who experiences a bad dream should fast the next day, because fasting is as potent against a dream as fire against tow.

It is permissible to fast on account of a bad dream, even on the Sabbath, but he must afterward observe the next day of fasting in penance for having failed to make the Sabbath a delight. If one is weak and unable to fast on two consecutive days, he should fast on another day. Some rabbis, however, rule that one should not fast on the Sabbath on account of a bad dream unless he saw that dream three  times .  Others rule that nowadays one should not fast on the Sabbath at all on account of a bad dream because we are not experts on dream interpretation to know which dream is good  and  which  is bad.

It is commonly stated in ancient books that for three types of dreams one should fast on the Sabbath: If one sees a Scroll of the law (Sefer Torah) burning, or if one sees Yom Kippur at the time of the late afternoon service, or if one sees the  walls of one's house or one's teeth falling out. Other types of dreams are sometimes included in this list. Some rabbis rule that one should not fast on the Sabbath for any of the aforementioned occurrences but should fast two week days, one on account of  the bad dream and the other to compensate for the Sabbath. In any event, one should not fast on the Sabbath unless fasting gives him pleasure; for example, he is very sad, fasting may give him peace of mind.

While some rabbis minimize the need to fast for a bad dream, others seem to feel that it is important to do so - both for the individual personally or even for the benefit of the community.

Vows in a Dream

What a person in his dream swore to do something, or vowed not to perform a certain act?

Some rabbis rule that the oath does not require cancellation (hatarah, literally: regret) whereas others rule that it does. Some rabbis even maintain that a vow made in a dream is more stringent than one made while awake and therefore requires ten persons to cancel it.  Some rabbis rule that a husband cannot nullify his wife's vow made in her dream, but that she needs ten people to cancel it. Other rabbis however, rule that the law in regard to a woman's vow is the same whether it occurs in a dream or while awake.

Some rabbis write that one need be concerned only with obligatory vows made in a dream but not with vows which are only made as a sign of piety and asceticism.  Interestingly, some rabbis rule that if a person swears or vows in a dream to fulfill a commandment, he is obligated to do so, such as if he vows in a dream to write a Scroll of the Law.

Monetary Matters in a Dream

The Gemara talks about a person who was distressed over some money which his father had left him but whose location was not disclosed. In a dream the specific amount and its location were disclosed to him - and also the fact that it was money for the redemption of second tithe. On that occasion, the rabbis ruled that dreams do not matter one way or the other and the money was not considered tithe money and could be used by him for any purpose. The same rule applies if a person was told in his dream that the money belongs to so-and-so; even if it was given for safekeeping to his father, he can keep it. So, too, if he was told in the dream that so much is earmarked for charity, he can keep it. The rabbis explain that one cannot rely on a dream to remove money from the person who is in possession of it. It matters not whether or not he is distressed; in every instance, these dreams are of no significance.

Some rabbis write that the principle that dreams are of no effect applies only in regard to commandments. But if one dreams about a deceased person and his indignity, one should pay attention to the dream. The aforementioned applies, however, only within thirty days of the death of a relative. Later than that, one pays no attention to the dream.

If a physician is prepared to prescribe a medication for a patient but is warned in a dream not to do so because the patient might die - if he is in doubt about that medication, he should not prescribe it. If he is sure it will not harm the patient, he should pay no attention to the dream. If he is in doubt but another physician is not in doubt, the second one should pay no attention to his friend's dream.

The various rabbinic teachings cited herein hardly offer a concrete or coherent approach toward the question of the relative importance one should ascribe to a dream. Dreams are evanescent, and the laws pertaining to them seem similarly obscure. If a person is troubled by a dream experience, it would appear to be prudent to consult a Torah scholar wise in the depths of this deep issue, in order to receive direction and guidance on the proper reaction.

For a deeper and more comprehensive study we encourage you to take the 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course' taught by the Talmudic University of Florida or the 'Home/Study course', 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course'.

11. Prophesy & Inspiration

The Tanach is replete with examples of divine inspiration, whether mere assistance or outright prophecy. What is prophecy? Does it exist today? How does God speak to us? In this lesson we are going to provide an overview of divine assistance, inspiration, and prophecy.

Siyata D’Shmaya - Divine Assistance

The lowest level of inspiration is what we can best call “divine assistance.” Though not uncommon, it is so that those who have it are usually unaware of it. This level of inspiration is given to all of those who teach Torah in public with the proper motivations and fear of God. This level of inspirations is alluded to in many places. For example in Psalms 25:14:

The counsel of HaShem is with them that fear Him; and His covenant, to make them know it.

This was the minimal level of inspiration possessed by all leaders in the Tanach and Talmud. Any Torah leader whose works have been accepted by all or a substantial portion of Israel is assumed to have possessed this level of inspiration. This level can be attained by any person in any time or place.

Ruach HaKodesh – Divine Inspiration

Ruach HaKodesh is the next highest level of inspiration. At this level a person is aware that God is guiding his actions. However, it is still not prophecy.

Prophecy, as we shall see, is a communication between God and man. Ruach HaKodesh is not communication. Rather, it is inspiration and guidance. Through it a person develops unique intuition as to future events and even the thoughts and actions of others. There are ten qualities a person must perfect before he is even minimally worthy of this inspiration:

• Torah – he must be unceasingly involved in the study and teaching of Torah.
• Zehirus, caution - He must be extremely careful to never violate a negative commandment.
• Zerizus, zeal – he must zealously perform every positive commandment.
• Nekius, cleanliness – he must be clean of sin in thought and desire.
• Perishus, abstention – he must sanctify himself even in that which is permitted and abstain from it if it may possibly lead to untoward desires or actions.
• Tahara, purity – he must have repented and cleanse himself of all sin, having righted all his past wrongs.
• Chasidus, piety – complete dedication to God beyond the letter of the law, but in the spirit of the law as well.
• Anavah, humility – complete nullification of ego and self.
• Yiras Chet – Dread and fear of sin.
• Kedusha, holiness – separation from worldly needs and desires.

Once these qualities have been mastered, then the initiate may engage in meditations, certain rituals, or methods of intense Torah study in order to merit Ruach ha-kodesh.

Within this level there are many gradations that may be attained in greater or lesser measure.

The Ketuvim, Writings, were written in a state of Ruach haKodesh, divine inspiration, while the Prophets were written in a state of Nevuah, prophecy. That is why the Prophets are on a higher level than the writings.

Nevuah - Prophecy

At first, prophecy was attainable by all human beings. Moses, however, prayed that it be granted to Israel alone – a request to which God agreed:

And he [Moses] said unto Him: 'If Your presence go not with me, carry us not up. For wherein now shall it be known that I have found grace in Your sight - I and Thy people? Is it not in that you go with us, so that we are distinguished, I and Thy people, from all the people that are upon the face of the earth?'  And HaShem said unto Moses: 'I will do this thing that you have spoken, for you have found grace in My sight, and I know you by name.'

This restriction went into effect upon completion of the tabernacle. From that moment on, prophecy was not granted to non-Jews unless it was for the sake of Israel. Even in these instances, however, the prophetic vision was the bare minimum needed to convey the message. It would come secretly, at night, and in  a vague form. This is the statement of the prophet:

Now a word was brought to me secretly.

Conditions For Prophesy

Even with the restriction of prophecy to Israel alone, a number of conditions must exist for prophecy to take place:

Land of Israel and Her People

Prophecy is only possible in the land of Israel when the majority of the Jewish people are living there:

HaShem, your G-d, will raise up a prophet for your, from your midst, from your brethren, like me. To him shall you listen.

The bold section indicates that prophecy is only possible in Israel when it is inhabited by the Jewish people. This is because prophecy requires a particular degree of Kedushah, holiness, which is only possible in Israel and in the midst of the people of Israel.

Once a prophet has mastered prophecy in Israel, he can then attain prophecy even outside of Israel. However, this prophecy will be harder to achieve and only granted in specific circumstances.

Full prophecy is only possible when the Ark of the Covenant rests in the temple. At that time, the influence of the Ark, the root of prophecy in this world, extended to the boundaries of the land of Israel.

There are a number of qualities a person must possess as a prerequisite to prophecy:

Must be of pure Israelite lineage and a direct descendant of Abraham. Moses alluded to this when he said:

God, your Lord, will elevate a prophet from you… from your brethren, just like me - meaning of Israelite ancestry like Moses himself.

• This is a general rule, however. Exceptions have been made for those of special merit, such as Obadiah.
  
  
• A potential prophet must possess a number of personal qualities as pre- requisites:

                    Must be mentally healthy and stable.
                    Must have a mature intellect which has maximized its potential.
                    Must be an expert in all areas of the Torah.
                    Must have what he needs and be materially completely satisfied with no desires materially for more or less.

• The generation must be capable of meriting prophecy. Prophecy is only granted for the sake of God’s people. Even if an individual is worthy and capable of receiving prophecy, it will not be bestowed if the Generation is not worthy or capable of recognizing true prophecy.

Once these minimum benchmarks are met, the candidate may begin to prepare for prophecy. This involves techniques of meditation and focus to attain the state required for prophecy.

Master & Guide

Every potential prophet must have a master to guide him and constantly give him “reality checks.” Without a master to teach him and keep him on the right track, the result of his efforts will be psychosis and hallucinations.

The Experience of Prophecy

Prophecy, being a skill and a craft, is something the prophet works to perfect over a long period of time. His first early prophecies will be flawed, unfocused and possibly unrecognizable as prophecy.

As his prophecy is perfected, it may be experienced as either a waking vision or a nocturnal dream:

And He said: 'Hear now My words: if there be a prophet among you, I HaShem will make Myself known unto him in a vision, I will speak with him in a dream.

The type of prophetic experience indicates greater and lesser degrees of prophetic ability. In ascending order of ability:

• A Waking vision is always higher than a dream vision.
• Hearing words is higher than seeing visions.
• Seeing the speaker of the words is higher than only hearing them.
• Seeing an angelic speaker is higher than seeing a human speaker.

The prophetic experience cannot be had if the prophet is depressed or angry. He must be in a pleasant, content, happy mood in order to enter the prophetic state. For this reason, we often see music connected to the prophetic experience.

According to many, the voice one hears in a prophecy is the Prophet’s own. The face he may see is his own as well.

Most of a prophet’s visions are private and meant only for the prophet himself.  However, a prophet is sometimes sent with a message for others. In such a case, the prophet is forced to reveal it even against his will:

Public Prophesy

And if I say: 'I will not make mention of Him, nor speak any more in His name', then there is in my heart as it were a burning fire shut up in my bones, and I weary myself to hold it in, but cannot.

Not all public prophecies were recorded and canonized. Only those prophecies that apply to all of Israel at all times were recorded as part of Tanakh.

The Prophesy of Moses

None of the aforementioned applies to Moses. Moses’s prophecy was of an entirely different type than all other prophets. Moses spoke to God as one  speaks to his fellow, face to face. His prophecy was not in the form of symbols, visions, or dreams, but as a waking, absolutely normal experience. Moreover, Moses was able to engage in direct conversation with God at any time.

Prophecy was very common during the first temple era. Many times there were over 1,000,000 people who had prophecy.

Prophesy's End

The period of Prophecy lasted from about 1313 BCE until about 40 years after the building of the second temple (about 313 BCE). Prophecy had begun to wane when the majority of the Jewish people refused to return to Israel with Ezra. Additionally, the Ark was displaced after the destruction of the first temple, which weakened the potential of prophecy. Sadly, there is no prophecy in our times.

Summary

• There are three types of heavenly inspiration that exist. Each has its own numerous gradations and subdivision.
• The lowest level is Divine Assistance, and is granted to all those who teach Torah in public for the right reasons. All may attain this.
• The second level is Divine Inspiration. It is rarer than the first type. There are a number of personal qualities that the initiate must possess. This is a form of divine guidance granting the holder unique insight and intuition.
• The highest level is Nevuah – prophecy. This is an experience of communication  with God via a vision or dream. Prophecy does not exist anymore in our days.

For a deeper and more comprehensive study we encourage you to take the 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course' taught by the Talmudic University of Florida or the 'Home/Study course', 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course'.

12. Moshiach

The pre-Messianic era, Messianic era, and identity of the Messiah himself are complicated and often misunderstood topics that involve a number of people and a process of unfolding events. While the grand details are known with certainty, specific elements must remain speculation until the actual time comes. In this lesson we will review the facts and questions regarding the coming of the Messiah.

The Pre-Messianic Era

Numerous scriptural prophecies, Midrashim, and other sources tell us that, as the time of the Messiah draws near, the world will experience changes and upheavals. Many of these will be positive, while others will be devastating.

Truth will ne’ederes [fail]… Isaiah 59:15

Changes in Religion and Belief

The Talmud explains that the word ne’ederes is also related to the word for “flocks.” The implication of the verse is that truth will fail because the Torah world will be divided into various groups, or flocks, each of which will claim the truth for its own. True Torah and faith will become indistinguishable from that which is false.

Rise of Atheism

Atheism will engulf the world and religious studies will become despised in the era preceding the Messiah. The Jewish world will not be spared from this calamity – many Jews will abandon the Torah and their faith as well. However, the wise will recognize that this torrent of disbelief is a test and that they must remain firm in their faith. This is the interpretation of the verse:

Many shall purify themselves – make themselves white and be refined; but the wicked shall do wickedly; and none of the wicked shall understand; but they that are wise shall understand.
Daniel 12:15

There are many who are far from Torah and truth, however, who will see what is happening and realize its import. They will return to God, yet they will suffer ridicule for abandoning the norms of secular culture. This is the meaning of the verse:

He who departs from evil will be considered a fool. Isaiah 59:15.

Social & National Upheaval & Decline

This decline in religious unity will be, partially, the result of a general global decline in values, morals, and important social institutions. Because change will advance so rapidly, parents and children will experience the world on radically different terms. As a result, there will be no respect of the elderly or for one’s parents. Governments will become godless and economies will fail.

Increase in Secular Knowledge

This will all be accompanied by a sudden increase in world population. This will be a time of tremendous strain. The Midrash states:

One-third of the world’s suffering will come in the generation before the Messiah. According to some recent authorities, there will be an explosion of secular and scientific knowledge before the coming of the Messiah.

This is understood from a passage in the Zohar:

In the 600th year of the 6th millennium, the supernal gates of wisdom and the lower wellsprings of wisdom will open. This will prepare the world to enter the 7th millennium just as man prepares for Sabbath before sunset.

This prophecy establishes the Hebrew year 5600 (1839/1840) as the start of a new era in Human knowledge. Though we cannot tie this Zohar to any specific even in that year, it does correspond to the onset of the scientific revolution and modern technological era.

Ingathering of Exiles

He will gather the dispersed of Israel - Psalms 147:2

God will then bring back your remnants and have mercy on you. God your Lord will once again gather you from among all the nations where He scattered you.  Deuteronomy 30:3

Either after or concurrent with the pre-messianic upheavals there will be a return of the Jewish people to their ancestral land. The unfolding of this process, whether gradual or sudden, miraculous or natural, is uncertain.  However it occurs, it will only be completed by the Messiah himself:

Restoration of Prophecy

On that day, God will stretch forth his hand a second time to recover His people… He will send up a banner for the nations, assemble the dispersed of Israel, and gather together the scattered of Judah from the four corners of the earth.  Isaiah 11:11-12

Besides the prophetic indications of a national return, it is also a necessary component of the redemptive process. It appears that the coming of the Messiah is concomitant with a return of prophecy.

However, this can only happen when a number of other conditions are fulfilled, one of which is that the majority of the Jewish population must reside in the land of Israel. Therefore, there must be a resettlement prior to the advent of the Messiah.

O mountains of Israel, let your branches sprout forth and yield your fruit to My people Israel, for they are at hand to come.  Ezekiel 36:8

Cultivation of the Land

I will open rivers on the high hills and fountains in the midst of the valleys. I will make the wilderness a pool of water and the dry land springs of water. I will plant in the wilderness cedar, the acacia, myrtle, and the oil-tree. I will set in the desert cypress, the plane-tree, and the larch together so that they may see, and know, and consider, and understand together, that the hand of HaShem has done this, and the Holy One of Israel has created it.  Isaiah 41: 18 - 2013

These passages are only a sampling of those prophesying a renewed cultivation of the land of Israel prior to the redemption.

The War of Gog and Magog

One of the final steps in the messianic advent is the War of Gog and Magog. The Book of Ezekiel, chapters 38 and 39, prophecies a war in the era immediately preceding the Messiah. This war, according to the Zohar, will take place in the vicinity of Jerusalem. It will be the final showdown for the Land of Israel, a battle royale for the soul of the land. Upon its conclusion, the Jews will live free of harassment in their land. According to Rabbi Akiva, the war will last one year.

Though the names of Gog and Magog appear early in Tanakh, the exact identities of these nations in modern terms is uncertain. According to the Talmud, the second Psalm is a reference to this eventual conflict.

The Two Messiahs

It is little known that there actually are two Messiahs: Moshiach ben David (Messiah, son of David) and Moshiach ben Yosef (Messiah, son of Joseph – sometimes called Moshiach ben Ephraim). This is alluded to in numerous places:

And you, son of man, take one stick, and write upon it: For Judah, and for the children of Israel his companions; then take another stick, and write upon it: For Joseph, the stick of Ephraim, and of all the house of Israel his companions; and join them one to another into one stick, that they may become one in your hand.  Ezekiel 37:16-17

Ephraim’s envy will depart and Judah’s enemies will be cut off. Ephraim will not envy Judah and Judah will not envy nor harass Ephraim.  Isaiah 11:13

Moshiach Ben Yosef

Of particular importance is the latter verse teaching that each of the Messiahs will have their own missions uniquely suited to their strengths. They will not envy one another nor interfere with their respective jobs. Each Messiah will have his own era, as well, with the Era of Moshiach ben Yosef coming first.

All messianic tasks up to and including the War of Gog and Magog will be the duties of Moshiach ben Yosef. It is he who will wage the war and conquer:

The house of Jacob shall be a fire, and the house of Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau stubble. They will set them ablaze and consume them; there will be no survivor of the house of Esau, for God has spoken.  Obadiah 1:18

It appears that this Messiah will die in battle, though, and be mourned by Israel:

They shall look to Me because they have pushed him through, and they shall mourn for him as one mourns for a first born son.  Zechariah 12:10

According to some scholars, however, the decree of death for Moshiach ben Yosef was rescinded.

Eliyahu HaNavi

Following the War of Gog and Magog, the prophet Elijah will herald the impending messianic age:

Behold! I will send Elijah the Prophet before the coming of the great and awesome day of God! He will turn the hearts of the fathers to their children and of the children to their fathers… Malachi 3:23

As we see in the verse, he will turn people back to truth and rectify much of the world’s pre-messianic decline. Immediately following his arrival, the final Messiah, ben David, will be revealed.

Summary of This Lesson

• There are a number of stages to the coming of the Messiah.
• The first is a period of social, spiritual, and political decline.
• According to contemporary understandings of the Zohar, there will be an explosion of secular wisdom concurrent with these travails.
• There will be tremendous difficulty discerning truth from falsehood in these times. The wise will see and recognize the greater significance of these events.
• Concurrent with or following this era will be a return of the Jews to their ancestral land. This return is an intrinsic part of the eventual return of prophecy.
• The land will be cultivated and bloom again.
• As the population increases and the former glory is Israel approaches its return, there will be a Great War: the War of Gog and Magog.
• This war will be waged on behalf of God by Moshiach ben Yosef, one of the two Messiahs.
• Either immediately before or after this war (after, according to most) Elijah the prophet will appear to announce and make final preparations for the final Messiah, Moshiach ben David.

For a deeper and more comprehensive study we encourage you to take the 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course' taught by the Talmudic University of Florida or the 'Home/Study course', 'Noahide Laws & Life Cycle Course'.

12.1. Moshiach II

In our previous article we examined the events of the pre-messianic era and the coming of Moshiach ben Yosef (Messiah son of Joseph). Moshiach ben Yosef, however, is only one of two messiahs. The second, final messiah is Moshiach ben David, the Davidic messiah. When most people speak of the messiah, they are referring to this final messianic figure. In this lesson we will examine the criteria for identifying the messiah, his duties, and the messianic age.

Criteria for the Davidic Messiah

The Torah belief is that the final Messiah, Moshiach ben Dovid, will be identified by six criteria:

1. He will be a direct descendant of King David,
2. He will be anointed as king of Israel,
3. He will complete the return of the Jewish people to Israel,
4. He will rebuild the temple in Jerusalem,
5. He will bring peace to the world, ending all war,
6. He will bring knowledge of God to the world.

These six criteria are not metaphorical – they are literal, observable, verifiable facts. They are the minimum that one must accomplish before he is accepted as the Messiah.

Writes the Rambam:

If there arises a ruler from the family of David, immersed in the Torah and its mitzvos as was his ancestor David, who observes both the Oral and Written Torahs, who leads Israel back to the Torah, strengthening its observance and waging God’s battles, then we may presume that he is the Messiah. If he then succeeds in rebuilding the temple upon its original site and gathering in the exiles of Israel, his identity as Messiah will then be confirmed.

Once a candidate meets criteria 1, 2, 5 and 6, we may presume he is the messiah. Once he completes stages 3 and 4, he is confirmed as the messiah. Our sages  teach us to nevertheless remain skeptical of messianic claims:

Said Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai: If you are holding a sapling in your hand and someone tells you, 'Come quickly, the messiah is here!', first finish planting the tree and then go to greet the messiah.

When Will the Messiah Arrive?

The messiah can come at any time and will arrive (reveal himself) on any day except a Shabbat or a Holiday.

However, we should never try to calculate or predict the time of the arrival of the messiah. The sages curse those who attempt to predict the dates and times of his arrival because doing so ultimately damages the faith of others:

Rabbi Shmuel ben Nachmani said in the name of Rabbi Yonatan, “The bones of those who calculate the end should rot! For they would say that since the predetermined time has arrived and yet he has not come, he will never come. Rather wait for him, as it is written, ‘Even though he might delay, wait for him.“

Furthermore, studying, fixating, or obsessing on the messiah as a goal of one’s religious thought and practice is discouraged:

A person should not involve himself with the Aggadot [Talmudic sections regarding Mashiach] nor with the words of the Midrash that speak about this topic. Do not make them the prime focus, because they do not bring a person to love or fear of God. Also do not calculate the end [time of Mashiach’s arrival] ... Rather wait for him and believe in the general principle, as we have explained.

The goal of our study and service of God should be to fulfill His will in this world at every moment. Focusing on the future redemption only diminishes one’s Avodah (divine service) in the here-and-now.

A Descendant of David

A shoot will come forth from the family of Jesse and a branch will grow from his roots. Isaiah 11:1

Jewish Ancestry

This is one of many verses indicating that the messiah will arise from the family of David. As mentioned, this is not a metaphor – he will actually be able to trace his lineage definitively to King David. There are many, many Jewish families today who can trace their ancestry to King David. Many of them are descendants of the Maharal, Rabbi Yehudah Loewy (1512 to 1609). Rabbi Loewy was a descendant of King David via his Geonic ancestry.

I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not nigh; there shall step forth a star out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite through the corners of Moab, and break down all the sons of Seth. Numbers 24:17

When you come into the land which the Lord your God gave you, and shall possess it, and dwell within it, and say: 'I will set a king over me like all the nations that are around about me,’ then you will set over you as king a wise man whom the Lord your G-d shall choose. You shall set one from among your brethren as king over you. You may not place a stranger over you who is not your brother.  Deuteronomy 17:14-15

These two versus inform us that the messiah must be Jewish. Since the messiah will also be anointed as a King of Israel, he must be Jewish. Jewish is defined as born of a Jewish mother.

The scepter shall not depart from Judah nor the ruler's staff from between his feet as long as men come to Shiloh; and unto him shall the obedience of the peoples be. Genesis 49:10.

From the Tribe of Judah

The messiah must come from the tribe of Judah. Tribal affiliation is only passed through the father’s lineage.

A King of Israel

The term Moshiach, messiah, literally means “anointed with oil.” Throughout the Tanakh there are many individuals who are called Moshiach on account of being anointed. Anointing with oil at the hands of a prophet was one of the many requirements for Jewish kingship. For example, the prophet Samuel anointed  both Kings Saul and David with oil.

Since the messiah will be crowned king, he must be anointed by a prophet. This is one of the reasons for the prophet Malachi’s prophesy that Elijah would return prior to the messiah.

Return of the Jewish People to Israel

He will arise a banner for the nations and assemble the castaways of Israel; and He will gather in the dispersed ones of Judah from the four corners of the earth.  Isaiah 11:12

It shall be on that day that Hashem will thresh, from the surging [Euphrates] River to the Brook of Egypt, and you [Israel] will be gathered up one by one, O Children of Israel. It shall be on that day that a great shofar will be blown, and those who are lost in the land of Assyria and those cast away in the land of Egypt will come [together], and they will prostrate themselves to Hashem on the holy mountain in Jerusalem.  Isaiah 27:12-13

I will return the captivity of Judah and captivity of Israel, and will rebuild them as at first.  Jeremiah 33:7

The return of the Jewish people to the land is not only part of the restoration of the glory of Israel, but is necessary for the return of prophecy. As we saw in the previous lesson, the Messiah will be the greatest prophet ever, second only to Moses. As it is written:

He will be filled with the spirit of God; he will not judge by what his eyes see or decide by what his ears hear.  Isaiah 11:13.

Among the many requirements for prophecy is that the majority of the Jewish people live in the land of Israel.

Restoration of Tribal Identities

Using his power of prophecy, the messiah will clarify the tribal identities of the Jewish people. In particular, he will determine the legitimacy of the Kohanim and Leviim. He will then divide the land according to the ancestral heritage of each.

Rebuilding of the Temple

I will seal a covenant of peace with them; it will be an eternal covenant with them; and I will emplace them and increase them, and I will place My Sanctuary among them forever. My dwelling place will be among them; I will be a God to them and they will be a people to Me. Then the nations will know that I am Hashem who sanctifies Israel, when My Sanctuary will be among them forever.  Ezekiel 37:26-28

It will be in the end of days that the Mountain of the Temple of Hashem will be firmly established as the most prominent of the mountains, and it will be exalted up above the hills, and peoples will stream to it.  Micah 4:1

It will happen in the end of days; The Mountain of the Temple of Hashem will be firmly established as the head of the mountains, and it will be exalted above the hills, and all the nations will stream to it. Many peoples will go and say, 'Come, let us go up to the Mountain of Hashem, to the Temple of the God of Jacob, and He will teach us of His ways and we will walk in His paths.  Isaiah 2: 2, 3

The Messiah will accomplish the rebuilding of the Third temple according to the details prophesied by Ezekiel. According to many, this is the act which definitively proves the identity of the messiah.

Many details of the rebuilding, such as the precise location of the altar, must be determined using prophecy. For this reason, we know that the messiah must have prophecy. This also means that rebuilding the temple prior to the advent of the messiah is impossible.

Reestablishment of the Sanhedrin

The Messiah will also reestablish the Sanhedrin, which is a precursor to the re- establishment of the Temple:

I will restore your judges as at first, your counselors as in the beginning. Afterwards you will be called the city of righteousness, the faithful city. Zion shall be redeemed with justice…  Isaiah 1:26-27.

At some point between the coming of Elijah and the reestablishment of the Sanhedrin, formal Semicha (rabbinic ordination) will be restored. This is necessary for one to serve on the Sanhedrin. The chain of ordination from Moses was broken by Roman oppression in 358 CE. The possibility of renewing this ordination and reconstituting the Sanhedrin prior to the Messiah has been raised in the past, in particularly by Rabbi Yaakov Beirav in Tsfas in the 16th century.

12.2. Moshiach II continued

However, the attempt failed upon the ruling of the Radbaz, Rabbi Dovid ben Zimra, that the establishment of Semicha was not possible in our times.

The Temple Service

The messiah will also restore the sacrificial system to whatever degree it will apply in the Messianic era. He will also reestablish the Sabbatical and Jubilee year observances.

Establishing Peace and the End of All Wars

I will seal a covenant of peace with them; it will be an eternal covenant with them; and I will emplace them and increase them, and I will place My Sanctuary among them forever.  Ezekiel 37:26

He will judge between many peoples, and will settle the arguments of mighty nations from far away. They will beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning knives; nation will not lift sword against nations, nor will they learn war anymore. Micah 4:3

He will judge among the nations, and will settle the arguments of many peoples. They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare.  Isaiah 2:4

The Messiah will be a great political leader who will make peace among the nations. All war will come to an end and the nations will work for the mutual benefit of the world.

He Will Bring Awareness of God

They will neither injure nor destroy in all of My sacred mountain; for the earth will be as filled with knowledge of Hashem as water covering the sea bed.  Isaiah 11:9

The glory of Hashem will be revealed, and all flesh together will see that the mouth of Hashem has spoken.  Isaiah 40:5

For then I will change the nations [to speak] a pure language, so that they all will proclaim the Name of Hashem, to worship Him with a united resolve.  Zephaniah 3:9

They will no longer teach - each man his fellow, each man his brother-saying, "Know Hashem! For all of them will know Me, from their smallest to their greatest - the word of Hashem - when I will forgive their iniquity and will no longer recall their sin.  Jeremiah  31:33

The most important mission of the Messiah will be to bring awareness of God to the world. Under his leadership all mankind will effortlessly achieve the highest levels of divine inspiration.

Free Will

Man will still have free will at this time and the potential to do evil will still exist. However, the awareness of God will be so intense and immediately apparent that there will be no incentive to do evil. Instead man will endeavor only to understand God and his Torah.

Conversion

As the messiah approaches, many non-Jews will rush to convert to Judaism. Once the Messiah ben David is revealed, however, converts will not be accepted anymore.

The Messiah’s End

The Messiah will be a human being like any other. He will have human parents and, like all men, will die a human death. However, his reign will last for a very, very long time because lifespans in Olam HaBa (the messianic world) will be greatly extended.

Summary

• There are six criteria that one must fulfill in order to be the messiah:

1. He will be a direct descendant of King David,
2. He will be anointed as king of Israel,
3. He will complete the return of the Jewish people to Israel,
4. He will rebuild the temple in Jerusalem,
5. He will bring peace to the world, ending all war,
6. He will bring knowledge of God to the world.

•  The Messiah will be human, born of human parents, and will die a human death.
•  Calculating the time at which he will arrive is forbidden and those who do so are cursed.
• While the messiah is a tenet of Torah faith, it should not be overly emphasized. Our duty is to fulfill Gods will in the here and now.

13. Supernatural

14. Laws of Shabbat for Non-Jews

15. Shabbat II - The Patriarchs & Shabbat

16.1. Shabbat III - Practical Conclusions for Non-Jews Pt. 2

16. Shabbat III - Practical Conclusions for Non-Jews

17. Parsha Noach - by Rabbi Shlomo Riskin

18. Introduction to Developing a Torah Personality

18.1. Torah Personality Part 1 A

18.2. Torah Personality Part 1 B

18.3. Torah Personality Part 2 A

18.4. Torah Personality Part 2 B

18.5. Torah Personality Part 2 C

18.6. Torah Personality Part 2 D

18.7. Torah Personality Appendix 1

18.8. Torah Personality Appendix 2

18.9. Torah Personality Appendix 3

19. What Happened After the Flood?                                                                                                                                   

20. Rambam's 13 Principles of Faith Explained

24. Rambam's 8 Levels of Tzedakah (Charity)

22. Only One God

23. Know Your CREATOR, Know Yourself and Know the Difference

The IDOLATRY Commandment in Eden
by Rabbi Zvi Aviner

25. A Finely Tuned Universe